WATER CONVERSION.
Because of water"s fondness for hydrogen bonding, it can absorb a lot of energy (in the form of heat) without actually changing temperature. This explains why even twenty-first-century cars have radiators, elephants have big ears, and human beings sweat. In the case of the latter, moisture carries heat from the inner core of our bodies to the outside, where it evaporates. The conversion from liquid to vapor absorbs even more energy and we cool off. This also explains why a bottle of beer chills faster in a bucket of cold water than in the relatively dry air of the freezer.
Distilled water is pure H2O. Everything else has been removed by either reverse osmosis or carbon filtering. Since no trace of anything else remains, distilled water tastes freakishly flat, but it is good for cleaning lab equipment and filling irons. Some water bottlers use it as an ingredient for "making" mineral water.Natural sparkling water is naturally carbonated spring water or spring water that has gone flat and has been recarbonated to the exact level of carbonation it had before it wasn"t flat . . . if that makes any sense.Club soda, seltzer, and soda water are cla.s.sified as soft drinks, not bottled waters, because they are essentially tap water that"s been manipulated by man. In most cases sodium bicarbonate has been added along with other flavorings (quinine in the case of tonic water) and salts. Since it contains soda, these waters are often used in baking and in certain batters, such as tempura. If you have a recipe that calls for club soda or soda water, do not replace it with naturally sparkling mineral water or you"ll be sorry.Now, say you go into a store and pick up a bottle of water that bears a three-color graphic of crystal-clear water gushing from a pristine mountain crag. Looks good, right? Okay, now look for the words "purified water" or simply "drinking water." Find them? That water came from a munic.i.p.al source-the tap-and has been purified and possibly fortified with minerals. So skip the pictures and go for the small type. "Glacial water" must by law come from a glacier. "Naturally sparkling" water must come straight from a spring, with bubbles.
HARD AND SOFT WATER.
Hard water happens when water absorbs CO2(thus becoming acidic like acid rain), then comes in contact with limestone or rocks or soil containing calcium, magnesium salts, bicarbonates, chlorides, and the like. Since it"s a great solvent, the acidic water dissolves and absorbs large amounts of these solids. They remain in the solution until the water is either heated (in your hot water heater or tea kettle) or has its pressure rapidly reduced (your kitchen faucet or dishwasher sprayers). Then they become rocklike deposits that stick readily to things we don"t want them to stick to. Hard water is also terrible at washing things. That"s because it"s already got its molecular mitts full of minerals and can"t get a grip on soap or dirt.Soft water is the opposite of hard water. It"s relatively free of dissolved solids so it"s a great solvent and soap"s best friend. However, when it come to drinking or cooking water there is such a thing as too soft. Very soft water is flat tasting (like distilled water) and since it lacks minerals, not as good for you as harder water. Super-soft water also tends to brew lackl.u.s.ter coffee, tea, and beer.
As more heat is added, the action on the dance floor gets frantic. Add enough heat, and the water will eventually come to a boil. Hydrogen bonds break down, the atmospheric pressure holding the water in the pot will be overcome, and the liquid will begin to move into the vapor state we call steam. When that happens, the water expands radically, like disco dancers who suddenly decide to break into a Viennese waltz. Food placed in this environment may not b.u.mp into many molecules, but those that are encountered contain considerable energy. While this is bad news, for say, your hand, it"s good news for delicate foods that would otherwise be torn to shreds in the boiling water discotheque.
Since most of us can open up a tap and take as much of the planet"s water as we want, we tend to think of water as a constant rather than an ingredient. I"ve seen cooks spend all morning at the farmers" market, hand picking the finest designer-organic-heirloom vegetables, only to chuck them straight into a pot of tap water that smells like the kiddie pool at the Y. If your munic.i.p.al agua agua leaves something to be desired, you should either filter it or give up and start from scratch. (If you"re curious about what"s coming out of your taps, request a water quality report from your local water company.) leaves something to be desired, you should either filter it or give up and start from scratch. (If you"re curious about what"s coming out of your taps, request a water quality report from your local water company.)
Filter Your Water
I might be willing to pay three bucks for a latte every now and then, but I just can"t bring myself to pay a buck for a pint of water. I don"t care what glacier it dripped off of or what Alp it perked up out of, I still think it"s a rip-off (see What"s in Your Bottle What"s in Your Bottle). Luckily, we have water filters.
ACTIVATED CHARCOAL.
Activated charcoal is on my "top-ten coolest things in the world" list. Unlike the stuff that you burn in the grill, activated charcoal is a powder made up of tiny carbon sponges. These particles are amazingly porous and can absorb something like a zillion times their weight in organic compounds (including many poisons), as well as a host of nasty chemicals, such as chlorine, solvents, and even some pesticides. How do these tiny grains do the job? For one thing, they are 100 percent carbon, and so they act like Velcro, clinging to any substance containing carbon. More important, they possess an almost unbelievable amount of surface area-up to 160 acres per pound! Think about that a minute. That means that each gram of activated charcoal has in the neighborhood of 14,000 square feet of bonding s.p.a.ce. Amazing though this is, all this s.p.a.ce will eventually be taken, and the filter will need to be changed. Failing to change an exhausted filter is actually worse than having no filter at all, because the nooks and crannies of activated charcoal are like an ant farm for bacteria. If your water is chlorinated, pathogens shouldn"t be a problem, but the longer that filter sits there, the more you"re just asking for trouble.
There are three types of water filtration systems, all of which utilize activated charcoal (see Activated Charcoal). Since my munic.i.p.al water is safe and relatively good at cleaning things (see Hard and Soft Water) I don"t feel I really need a high-volume system to scrutinize and scrub every milliliter that comes into the house or even through one particular tap. I"m not a fan of faucet-mounted models because they make every sink they meet look like a refinery and their size necessitates seemingly constant filter changing. I prefer the pitchers with pour-through filters that utilize drop-in filter cartridges. These devices are rather slow but they"re effective and very affordable. Around my house we keep the filter pitcher on the counter and keep a gallon or so (tightly sealed) squirreled away for cooking those designer veggies we were talking about.
If you just can"t bring yourself to spring for a filter (cheapskate), at least take these taste precautions. Let the water run while you count slowly to ten (for better oxygenation) before you fill any vessel. Then bring the water to a boil and keep it there for a solid minute, uncovered, before adding any food (this eliminates some of the chlorine).
FILTRATION UPDATE.
They say water is the new oil, so a lot of R&D (that"s research and design) has gone into filtration and purification systems in the last few years. The only ones cooks should really question are RO (or reverse osmosis) systems, which can remove even the smallest spores and viruses from water. The problem is that they waste a lot of water and they remove just about all the mineral content that gives H2O any life.
Poaching
Poaching is defined as cooking food gently in liquid that has been heated until the surface just begins to quiver.
I personally have never seen water "quiver," but since no bubbles are mentioned I a.s.sume that we"re talking about a temperature that"s below a simmer. How much below? Who knows? Some cooks argue 180 F-others 185 F-either of which is nearly impossible to maintain on a standard home stove top. Then, of course, there"s the food.
Fish, eggs, and chicken b.r.e.a.s.t.s are traditional poaching fodder because they profit from gentle (there"s that word again) heat. The other side of the coin is that these foods get nasty soon after they exceed their relatively low ideal temps-140 F to 150 F in the case of fish and 165 F for chicken meat. So let"s say you"ve got a flavorful liquid (see The Liquid) and you bring it to 180 F and slide in a piece of sole. So far so good, you think, but how do you know when it"s done? It"s too thin to use a thermometer and it"s impossible to time. You"re left there to poke, ponder and pray that you"ll recognize the moment when your dinner enters the narrow (10) doneness zone, at which point you"ll have to act quickly because the food will be well on its way to a state of thermal equilibrium with its surrounding environment, which is not a happy place for these kinds of foods to be in. So, not only can"t you tell when the food is done, it won"t stay that way for long. No wonder n.o.body poaches anymore.
The solution?
As much as I"d love to claim this method as my own, I have to give credit to the patron saint of modern food scientists, Harold McGee, who wrote about this method in The Curious Cook The Curious Cook.
1. Start with the liquid at a boil to kill any surface bacteria.2. Drop the temperature of the liquid to the final desired temperature of the meat.
This way the food never overcooks. This doesn"t mean you can leave the food in there all night, but-while its never a good idea to turn your back to a simmering pot-you could. Fruit, by the way, is often poached in syrup, but in that case the real goal is not to control the final internal temperature but to cook the fruit without blowing it to bits with the turbulence of boiling.
I like to poach in an electric skillet electric skillet, which I calibrate by filling with water, dropping in the probe of one of my many thermometers, and taking the thermostat for a ride. I found that the temperature range was way off, so I re-marked it with white tape and a pen. Then I went one geeky step further by wiring a dimmer into the cord so that I could maintain temperatures well below the "simmer" level. Of course, I"d never suggest you resort to such extreme measures for poaching, but hey, if you"re handy with wiring, you can give it a try as long as you hold me and my publisher blameless for any potential damages.
The Liquid
I usually poach fish in either wine (I tend toward sweeter wines like Rieslings) or a mixture of wine and water with lemon juice and a pinch of salt. Adding herbs makes the room smell nice, but considering the relatively short cooking time I don"t think it does much for the flavor of the fish-unless, of course, you"re making sauce. One of the nicest things about poaching liquid is that as long as you have added the salt with a light hand, once the food comes out you can jack up the heat and reduce the liquid, mount it and serve it with the fish.
To "mount" a sauce is to stir or whisk in a few bits of cold b.u.t.ter at the last minute.
Master Profile: Poaching Heat type: wet wet
Mode of transmission: 90:10 percent ratio conduction to convection 90:10 percent ratio conduction to convection Rate of transmission: slow slow Common transmitters: any liquid any liquid Temperature range: low and narrow 140-170 F (depending on who you ask) low and narrow 140-170 F (depending on who you ask) Target food characteristics: * tender proteins: fish, eggs, chicken and other poultry * tender proteins: fish, eggs, chicken and other poultry23 Non-culinary application: Jacuzzi on "stun" Jacuzzi on "stun"Poached Chicken Methods Combine the wine, stock, bay leaves, and peppercorns in a large heavy-bottomed pot, then proceed with one of the following methods.
Method 1Place the probe end of thermometer in the liquid and place over medium-high heat to maintain a temperature of 185 F. Submerge the bird in the liquid and set the thermometer alarm for 190 F. If the alarm sounds, the water has gotten too hot, reduce the heat to maintain 185 F. This method takes about 1 hour and 10 minutes. Remove the chicken to a rack set on a baking sheet to drain.
Method 2Cut the bird into serving-size pieces and submerge in cool liquid in an electric skillet set for 180 F. Use your thermometer in a leg or thigh, and when it reaches 180 F remove pieces to a rack set on a baking sheet to drain. This is probably the most foolproof method.
Now that you have all this poached chicken, what do you do with it? Well, you could simply eat it chilled atop a nice salad of mixed greens and fresh tomatoes with a boiled egg. Or eat it warm with Hollandaise Takes a Holiday Hollandaise Takes a Holiday, chop it into your favorite chicken salad recipe, or even simmer the pulled meat in your favorite barbecue sauce for delicious sandwiches. The possibilities are limitless.Software: 1 quart white wine 1 quart white wine Chicken stock (or water) to cover 2 bay leaves tablespoon peppercorns 1 whole broiler-size chicken Hardware: Heavy-bottomed pot (or electric Heavy-bottomed pot (or electric skillet) large enough to fit the whole chicken Probe thermometer Tongs Rack Baking sheet
Simmering
Master Profile: Simmering Heat type: wet wet
Mode of transmission: 80:20 percent ratio of conduction to convection 80:20 percent ratio of conduction to convection Rate of transmission: moderate to high moderate to high Common transmitters: any liquid any liquid Temperature range: narrow 175-200 F (depending on who you ask) narrow 175-200 F (depending on who you ask) Target food characteristics: * Dehydrated starches: rice, dry beans, oats, barley * Dehydrated starches: rice, dry beans, oats, barley* Hearty greens: collards* Foods that can stand up to high heat and some physical convection Non-culinary application: Jacuzzi on "kill" Jacuzzi on "kill"
Time and sub-boiling temperatures are the Lerner and Loewe of the kitchen world, a team capable of converting simple culinary notes into remarkable opuses (or is that opi?). Unfortunately, two factors conspire to prevent the cook from hearing the music: dropping below the visual benchmark boil is like flying on instruments; there"s not much to see and what there is can rarely be trusted. Also, the sub-boil lexicon is a nomenclatural netherworld where terms like simmer, poach, braise, coddle, stew and scald create connotative chaos. Consider the most oft-mentioned cooking term in the English culinary lexicon: simmer. There are two common definitions: 1. To heat water (or a water-type liquid) to about 195 F or until tiny bubbles form on the bottom of the pan then travel to the surface.2. To cook foods gently in a liquid held at the temperature mentioned above.
Already we"ve got problems. First there"s this word "about." The reason so many cookbooks use "about" is that n.o.body seems to be able to pin simmering (or any sub-boil technique) down to a single temperature.
Then there"s the trouble with bubbles. The temperature at which water will produce "tiny" bubbles depends a lot on the pot, the weather, even the water itself (See Boiling in the Microwave Boiling in the Microwave). And what if there"s more in the water than just water? Salt, starch, dissolved meat proteins (maybe oatmeal) can elevate the actual boiling point of the liquid. As stew liquid thickens, its sheer viscosity can impede bubble production. And yet how many stew recipes have you read that refer to those Don Ho bubbles?
Finally, there"s the word "gentle." Since simmering liquid lacks the physical turbulence of boiling water, it is physically gentle. (Anyone who"s canoed down a river knows that white water will beat you up a lot quicker than flat water.) But when it comes to heat, there are only a few degrees difference between a simmer and a full rolling boil. A "simmer" may not tear your fish to shreds, but it will squeeze the life out of it lickety-split, which is why you should never turn your back on a simmering pot.
So we"ve got all these cooking methods that depend on maintaining water or a watery liquid at relatively low temperatures, in some cases for a prolonged period of time. Now, where should the pot itself go? Well, I"ll tell you where it shouldn"t go: the cook top.
Most ranges, whether gas or electric, have large burners or eyes and a smaller "simmer" eye. The idea here is that since the burner is smaller it will generate less heat, which is true-sort of. The way I see it, natural gas burns at one temperature no matter how much of it there is. Place the tip of a thermometer into the flame of your oven"s pilot light and it"s going to read in the neighborhood of 3,200 F. Now crank your biggest burner and take its temp. They"re the same, right? So what we"re talking about here isn"t so much a matter of the temperature of the heat but the rate at which it"s being produced. That simmer eye, hot though it is, can"t pump out enough heat to bring a large pot of water to a boil in less than a day or two. It can, however, maintain sub-boiling temperatures-but not effectively. That"s because all the heat is being poured into a very small part of the pan (see figure A A). Since the metal directly over the flame is very hot indeed, the water directly over it heats very quickly and moves upward, creating wicked-fast convection currents (see figure B B). If it contains something thicker-oatmeal for instance-the water can"t move quickly enough for the heat to convect, so the liquid boils and the oatmeal sticks to the bottom of the pan (see Clad Pans Clad Pans).
Such situations require constant management. We have to fiddle with the heat, which is a pain, and we have to stir to keep the heat distributed throughout the pot, which is also a pain because not all foods enjoy being smacked around by a big wooden spoon.
Those of us with high-end electric burners have it a little easier when it comes to sub-boiling because the coils generally have a wider diameter, which makes for more even heating. Still, I"ve yet to meet an electric eye I felt I could trust any more than the average rattlesnake.
So what"s a cook to do? How are we to enjoy those soup beans, that beef stew, or that pilaf? Where can the heat be evenly applied and easily controlled?
The Oven
When it comes to sub-boil cookery, here"s what I believe: Simmering (including the second act of braising and stewing) means cooking in a water-type liquid held just below the boil, and the best way to maintain that temperature is in an oven. With some exceptions, I do all my simmering in a 250 F oven for the first hour, and then 225 for the rest of the cook time. The oven can maintain sub-boil temperatures for long periods of time (and I"ve got a thermometer to prove it). The heat moves into the vessel from all sides rather than through a small spot on the bottom, so the food inside cooks evenly, with little if any stirring.
Good simmering candidates include dried beans and other legumes, hearty greens, rice dishes, and meat stews and braises. Soup beans are the perfect example. Here"s a very simple food that"s darned good and good for you but that often comes out of the pot smushed to mush. Salt often takes the blame for cracked skin and spilled guts, but I"m not buying it.
With the exception of black beans and lentils, dried beans need to be soaked before cooking. The argument for dumping the soaking liquid has to do with liquid gas-the kind that leads to unfortunate social mishaps. Legumes contain gigantic sugars called oligosaccharides. The human machine lacks an enzyme capable of breaking these megamolecules down into pieces small enough for the intestine to absorb. So they move downstream to the colon. Now, the colon is very different from the small intestine, it"s rather densely populated with bacterial clans, all roaming around in search of a meal. When the oligosaccharides come floating by, the bacteria have themselves a feeding frenzy. One of the by-products of this frenzy is gas, which gathers uncomfortably, gurgles loudly, then, much to the delight of eight-year-old boys everywhere, seeks an exit.
CLAD PANS.
Manufacturers of fine cookware are always trying to figure out how to construct pots and pans so that they evenly distribute the heat of a stove top to food. It"s a tough nut to crack. As we discussed earlier, no one metal is ideal for cooking. Iron holds heat, and aluminum and copper conduct it, but all three are vulnerable to the kitchen environment. Stainless steel is tough and easy to care for, but it"s a pretty lousy heat conductor. The answer: a metal sandwich. Take a sheet of aluminum or copper, wrap it in a protective layer of stainless steel, and you"ve got clad cookware. Some manufacturers are content to weld a clad disk onto the bottom of a nonclad, stainless-steel vessel, which does result in better (that is, more even) conduction across the bottom of the vessel, but not the sides. The very best clad vessels are actually formed from the clad metal. That means that everywhere there"s pan, there"s a core of highly conductive metal surrounded by stainless steel. Heat can therefore move easily up the sides of the pan, for more even heating throughout.The downside of clad cookware is the cost. These are not cheap vessels to make, and you can easily sh.e.l.l out a hundred bucks for a sauce pan. All I can say is that you get what you pay for, and it really depends on how much control you want over your food. I cook my eggs in a twelve-dollar Teflon-coated aluminum pan from a restaurant supply store because I know what to expect from it, but I cook my soup beans (I really like soup beans, by the way) in a 150-dollar sauce pot because it makes a difference. Pick your battles. (See Appendix for more about pots and pans.)
While it"s true that some of the oligosaccharides do leach into the water during soaking, so do a lot of nutrients and more than a little bean flavor. And I hate to see flavor go down the drain. So if you suffer from emission troubles, keep the bean water and pick up a bottle of Beano or one of the other commercial preparations containing alpha-galactosidase, the enzyme that breaks down oligosaccharides.
Dried Beans Experiment Application: SimmeringDo a quick inspection of the beans: remove beans that are discolored, cracked, or shriveled. Cooking will not improve a bad bean. Give the rest a thorough washing to remove dust and any other undesirables.Soak the beans overnight in 6 cups of water. If dried beans don"t soak overnight, they"ll take at least twice as long to cook. The exceptions are lentils and split peas, which are fast-cooking to begin with, and black beans, which can squeak by with only a 3- or 4-hour soak. Be prepared: beans will double in volume during soaking, so make sure the soaking water covers them by an inch or two so they stay submerged.Leave the soaking beans out on the kitchen counter, covered. Although you can refrigerate them, it is slower. Don"t soak for more than 12 hours or you"ll get mushy, flavorless beans. In a rush? You can do a speed soak by bringing the beans and water to a boil, removing from the heat, and letting them soak for about 4 hours.Drain the beans and season with salt. Put the beans and chicken stock in the pot over medium-high flame and bring to a boil. Meanwhile, in the saute pan, heat the oil and add the garlic, letting it toast until nice and brown. Add the rosemary for just a few seconds to release its oils, then add the garlic and rosemary to the bean pot. To the pot add the carrots, onion, celery, 2 teaspoons of kosher salt, and a couple of grinds of fresh pepper. Put the lid on the pot and place in a 250 F oven for 1 hours.When the beans are done, check the seasoning, correct if necessary, and serve them with style.Yield: 2 quarts of delicious beans Software: 1 pound of dried beans 1 pound of dried beans Kosher salt 4 cups chicken stock Olive oil 2 tablespoons garlic, sliced 2 sprigs rosemary cup diced carrots cup diced onion cup diced celery Freshly ground black pepper Hardware: 5-quart ovenproof pot with lid 5-quart ovenproof pot with lid Collander Small saute pan Wooden spoon
Alabama Alchemy Being Southern, I like collard greens. Though there"s a trend toward picking them young and cooking them fast, I still prefer mature greens cooked long and low in a flavorful liquid. In this case, time, liquid, and low heat collaborate to soften the cement that holds the lef tissues together without turning them to mush. At the same time, the connective tissue of the ham hocks breaks down into gelatin. That gelatin mingles with the collard broth to produce a powerful liquid those who live below the M-D line call "potlikker."Could you make this dish without the smoked ham hocks? You could, but no hocks, no alchemy.
Application: SimmeringPreheat the oven to 250 F.Place the cut collards in a big sink of cold water and wash thoroughly. Using your hands, gently remove the collards from the sink to the large pot. Do not shake off the clinging water. Add the ham hocks, the water, and the vinegar and seal the pot with foil before putting the lid on.Move the pot to the oven and cook for 2 to 3 hours or until the collards reduce to of their original ma.s.s. (How long this takes depends on the collards; mature plants are heartier and more time will be needed to break down the cell walls.) Move the collards and the hocks, with cooking liquid, to the smaller pot to keep the hocks submerged. Continue cooking for another 2 to 3 hours longer, or until the collards reach the consistency of your choice.Although collards are often a side dish, I like to serve them in soup bowls, topped with the chopped hock meat, and cornbread on the side.Yield: A mess o" greens for 4-6 people and pot likker to dip your cornbread into.Software: 2 pounds collard greens, stemmed 2 pounds collard greens, stemmed and cut into 2-inch strips 2 smoked ham hocks 3 cups water cup vinegar of your choice (I like a combination of cider and rice wine vinegars) Hardware: The biggest covered pot you have The biggest covered pot you have that"ll fit in your oven Heavy-duty aluminum foil Another covered pot about half as big
A Quick Mess O" Greens Place in a pressure cooker in the following order: collards, ham hocks, water, and vinegar. Lock the lid in place and set over high heat. Bring to high pressure (this takes approximately 10 to 15 minutes), then reduce the heat to low and cook for 5 minutes more. Gently release steam. Remove the ham hocks (or pick the meat off the bone and add to the collards) add Kosher salt to taste, and serve.
Pilaf The word "pilaf" does refer to an actual dish, but more often than not it refers to a procedure, a way of cooking rice or other grains that includes a quick saute in fat before any moisture is added. The result is far more flavorful than any boiled or steamed rice can muster. So why cook rice any other way? I honestly can"t say.
Application: SimmeringPreheat the oven to 350 F (see Note Note). Add the salt to the liquid and bring to a boil in the kettle.Heat the sauce pot over medium-high heat, then add the b.u.t.ter. As soon as the foaming subsides, add the onion and garlic. Stir with the wooden spoon until fragrant, about 1 to 2 minutes.Add the rice and stir to coat. Stir off and on until the rice begins to smell slightly of nuts. Continue to stir, and pour in the boiling liquid (there will be some sputtering and steam). This will be the last time a spoon ever touches the rice until serving.Cover the sauce pot tightly and place in the oven for 17 minutes. Remove the pot from the oven and remove the lid. Do not touch the rice in any way for one minute. Then fluff with the fork, and serve.Yield: 4 cupsNote: I simmer my pilaf at this higher temperature because of the amount of energy required to continuously convert the water involved into steam. The type of starch present in rice really needs that heat. I simmer my pilaf at this higher temperature because of the amount of energy required to continuously convert the water involved into steam. The type of starch present in rice really needs that heat.Software: 1 teaspoon kosher salt 1 teaspoon kosher salt 4 cups liquid (water, stock, wine, or any combination thereof) 2 tablespoons unsalted b.u.t.ter cup diced onion 2 tablespoons minced garlic 2 cups white rice Hardware: Kettle (I prefer electric ones) Kettle (I prefer electric ones) Sauce pot with tight-fitting lid (if the fit is questionable, seal the pot opening with aluminum foil, then push on the lid) Wooden spoon Large fork
Boiling
Master Profile: Boiling Heat type: wet wet