These two fees, given by grat.i.tude for services rendered, were practically the fee simple of all India.
Some vague recognition of this fact doubtless prompted the epitaph on William Hamilton"s neglected tombstone in Calcutta, which runs thus:--
His memory ought to be dear to his Nation For the credit he gained the English in curing Ferrukseer the present King of Hindustan of a malignant distemper By which he made his own name famous At the Court of that Great Monarch And without doubt will perpetuate his memory as well in Great Britain as all other Nations in Europe.
He died, 4th December 1717. Gabriel Boughton, his predecessor in patriotism, dying G.o.d knows when, being buried G.o.d knows where.
So the epitaph is a trifle over-confident; for Great Britain has a trick of forgetting her most faithful servants.
THE RISE OF THE MAHRATTA POWER
A.D. 1707 TO A.D. 1738
The story of Siva-ji has already been told. His early decease, while it did not materially check the rising flood of Mahratta power, certainly left the invading West a freer hand along the sh.o.r.es of India from Bombay to Calicut.
For Siva-ji seems to have had a genius for sea, as well as for land warfare. It was his unerring eye which, seizing on an island along the coast overlooked hitherto by both Portuguese and English, had it fortified for use as a _point d"appui_, whence he could control the shipping north and south. Indeed, having in view the fact that he was the only person who managed in any way to hara.s.s English fleets, it seems not unlikely that, had he lived longer, British commerce would have been longer, also, in finding firm foothold in India.
But he died, and his son Samba-ji died also, meanly, miserably. That, however, only delayed the inevitable for a short time. The Mahratta star was in the ascendant, that of the Moghuls was sinking fast, and the death of Aurungzebe accelerated both ascent and descent.
To begin with, it ended what may be called the Rajput acquiescence in empire; that is to say, their acceptance of "Akbar"s Dream" as an ideal, which by good fortune might become real. It was an ideal absolutely foreign to the whole Rajput spirit, the whole Rajput theory of life. In their State-Politic, one chieftain had as independent a position as any other chieftain, and even amongst the followers of those chieftains none was really before or after the other. Every Rajput owed equal fealty to his race, was equally free to defend his own rights as he chose. Yet side by side with this curious individual independence ran what, for want of a better word, we may call a feudal bond betwixt follower and chieftain, between chieftain and suzerain.
Akbar"s Dream of Empire had been antagonistic to this, yet they had accepted that Dream at his hands, and at his death the mere fact of his heir Jahangir being half a Rajput by birth, had helped them to forget what they had given up to the dead man"s genius. Shahjahan was still more Rajput. In his veins there flowed but one-fourth of the hated Mahomedan blood, so they bore with him. But with Aurungzebe it was different. Born of a Mahomedan mother, the old race intolerance showed in him early, and from the moment he set his foot on the throne, alienation of loyalty began actively, pa.s.sively, so that by the time the bigot"s reign of fifty years was over, every Rajput in India was ripe for revolt; a fact which naturally was in favour of the Mahrattas, since it weakened the power of the Moghuls. It was still more favourable to the advancement of the West, since with India engaged in internecine strife, attention was withdrawn from many a seemingly slight advance which yet was the first step to final conquest. Naturally, after Aurungzebe"s anxious efforts to settle the succession by means of a last will and testament, his sons immediately came to blows over the business; in which quarrel the best claimant appears to have gone to the wall, for Azim, the second son, was defeated and killed near Agra by his elder brother, Shah-Alam, and Kambaksh, the youngest, shortly afterwards drew death down on himself by a desperate defiance near Hyderabad. Thus Shah-Alam was left to face the situation for five years under the t.i.tle of Bahadur-Shah. It is worthy of note that he, the first puppet-emperor of Delhi, had thus the same name as the last, the old man Bahadur-Shah, who, after dallying with disgrace and deceit in 1857 went to end his miserable life in the Andaman Islands.
Bahadur-Shah the First found his hands full. Having pursued Kambaksh to the very confines of the Dekkan, it was necessary ere returning northward to settle the Rajput rebellion (which was becoming daily less restrained), and to temporise in some way with the Mahrattas. And here a piece of diplomacy on the part of the dead brother, Azim, served Bahadur"s turn well. The former, when advancing to dispute the crown, had sought to strengthen his position and protect his rear by giving back to the Mahrattas the rightful heir to Siva-ji"s throne in the person of his grandson Saho, who had been kept in captivity by the Moghuls ever since his father Samba-ji had paid the penalty for blasphemy amongst the Mahomedans, and so been made a martyr by the Mahrattas. It was a wily move, for during the young claimant"s long incarceration, another pretender to Siva-ji"s crown had arisen.
Azim-Shah, therefore, had deliberately started a successional dispute in the hopes of being thereby freed for a time of troublesome neighbours.
The ruse succeeded, and Bahadur-Shah, by ratifying his brother"s promise of favourable peace should the young pretender succeed in establishing his claim, managed to keep the Mahrattas quiet for some years.
He was less fortunate with the Rajput confederacy, though he was prepared to give up all things but the mere name of Empire. In the case of Oudipur (Chitore) he went so far as to restore all annexations, to release it from the obligation of furnishing a contingent, to abolish the infidel capitation tax, or _jizyia_, and to re-establish religious toleration as it had existed in the time of Akbar. He could not well have done more; but for once--almost for the only time in Indian history--a faint political feeling is here to be traced. For even the removal of the hated _jizyia_ was not enough for the Rajput; he wanted, and he meant to have, independence. This is--or seems to be--the only occasion in all the long centuries of Indian history which gives us a hint of any recognition on the part of the people of political rights, and as such it is peculiarly interesting.
Unfortunately, it is so mixed up with the religious motive that it is impossible to say if it really gives ground for supposing that we have here a faint realisation of the rights of the individual.
While Bahadur-Shah was engaged in pacifying the Rajputs by the relinquishment of everything, he was suddenly called to the Punjab by an insurrection amongst the Sikhs.
Nanuk, their original founder, had lived in Akbar"s time; a time peculiarly productive of religious enthusiasms all over the world. And Nanuk was a religious enthusiast pure and simple. Of the soldier caste, the son of a grain merchant, he was _devote_ from childhood.
Much travel and mature manhood turned him into an almost inspired preacher of the Theistic doctrines of Kabir, who in his turn was a disciple of the great Ramanuja. Concerning this same Kabir there is a curious legend, the recital of which may serve to impress the memory with the most salient feature of his teaching--his tolerance.
The tale runs that at his death the Mahomedans claimed the right to bury the saint, the Hindus to burn him; in consequence of which there was a free fight over the corpse, in the midst of which the still, white-shrouded form lay, mutely appealing for peace. And lo! when blood had been uselessly spilt, and a compromise effected, it was found that beneath the white sheet was no dead man, only where his holy head had lain grew a sweet basil plant, sacred to the G.o.d Vishnu, only where his holy feet had touched, a perfumed _rehan_ bush, green as the green of the Prophet"s turban!
Nanuk, then, was a preacher, a quietest, and being possessed of this spirit of universal charity, was allowed, naturally, to live in peace during the reign of that past--master in tolerance, Akbar. At his death, however, the rapid increase of the sect attracted the unfavourable notice of Jahangir, and Nanuk was cruelly put to death.
The usual result followed. Armed with a sainted martyr, religion became fanaticism. Har-Govind, the murdered man"s son, brought revenge and hatred to his holding of the supreme pontiff-ship, and from this time the Sikhs, expelled forcibly from their lands, presented from the mountains north of Lah.o.r.e an unbroken front of rebellion to the Government.
It was not, however, till 1675 that, under Govind, the tenth Guru (or spiritual head of the sect) from Nanuk its founder, the Sikhs formed themselves into an aggressive military commonwealth.
Guru Govind was a wise man. Numbers were his first need, so he set to work to establish a creed wide enough to contain all converts, attractive enough to compel them to come in.
Caste was abolished; Mahomedan or Hindu, Brahman or Pariah, were alike when once the oath of fealty was taken, when once the new-made Sikh had vowed to be a religious soldier, to carry cold steel about with him from birth to death, to wear blue clothes always, and never to clip a hair which G.o.d had sent to grow upon him. In order still further to emphasise the separation of the Sikh from his fellows, new methods of salutation, new ceremonials for all the princ.i.p.al events of life, were inst.i.tuted.
Nothing more interesting in the annals of heredity exists than the startling rapidity of the change thus brought about in the Sikhs. They are now--that is, after two hundred years--(as they were, indeed, after a scant one hundred) as distinct a race as any in India, with as well marked a national character as any of the original peoples of India.
So far, therefore, Guru Govind was successful; but his personal mission proved disastrous. Despite his diplomacy, he failed in numbers; his foes were too strong for him, and in the end the pontiff saw all his fortresses taken, his mother and his children murdered, his followers tortured, dispersed, or killed.
This was in Aurungzebe"s time, that most bigoted and bloodthirsty of pious kings. The closing years of his reign, however, found him with all his energies centred on the Dekkan, and almost immediately after his death, the Sikhs recovered from their stupor, and having found a new, and this time an unscrupulously cruel leader, broke out into almost incredible excesses of revenge. They ravaged Sirhind, they brutally butchered whole towns, and after penetrating southward as far as Saharunpur, retreated to the Cis and Trans-Sutlej states, which are to this day the stronghold of the Sikh faith.
It was against these stalwart rebels--for one of the quickly acquired national characteristics of the Sikhs is unusual physical height and breadth--that Bahadur-Shah had to march in person. He managed with infinite trouble to besiege the chief offenders in a hill-fort, whence, after enduring the utmost extremities of famine, they made a wild sally, headed, apparently, by their leader Banda, who, after making himself conspicuous by desperate resistance, was captured and brought to the Mahomedan camp in triumph. Once there, however, the prisoner threw aside his borrowed _role_, openly declared himself nothing but a poor Hindu convert who had dared all to save his Guru, and taunted his captors with having fallen into the trap and allowed the real Banda to escape them!
It is pleasantly noteworthy to find that Bahadur-Shah, struck by the man"s self-devotion, spared his life.
Before, however, the further endeavours to secure the real leader and crush the Sikhs were successful, the emperor himself fell sick and died, and the usual turmoil of murder and intrigue followed, which ended in the temporary enthronement, at the instigation of Zulfikar Khan (who had been chief instrument in the late king"s succession), of the eldest son, Jahandar-Shah. An inveterate intriguer was this same Zulfikar. He it was who had suggested hampering the hands of the Mahrattas by presenting them with a new claimant for their crown; and now he chose his nominee--despatching the remainder of the royal family _instanter_--because Jahandar, weak, vicious, enslaved by a public dancer, offered himself an easy prey to Zulfikar"s desire to be the real ruler.
But Farokhshir, son of one of the murdered princes, who had escaped ma.s.sacre by being in Bengal, had just sufficient s.p.u.n.k in him to oppose the maker of puppet-kings. Fortune favoured him miraculously, quite irrationally, and--surely to his own surprise--he found himself marching on Delhi, victorious, triumphant. But the whole affair had degenerated--as purely Indian history after the death of Aurungzebe so often does degenerate--into transpontine melodrama and comic opera, and he was met at the gates by an obsequious Zulfikar and his still more obsequious papa, both ready, willing, and eager to deliver up their prisoner, the late Emperor Jahandar, and take the oath of allegiance to the new one, Farokhshir.
But this pa.s.sed. It was, to use a vulgarism, "too thick" even for a debased Moghul. So the double-dyed traitor was calmly strangled in the imperial tent, Jahandar was quietly put out of the way, and Farokhshir reigned in his stead.
One is irresistibly reminded, as one reads the records of the few following reigns, of the terrible annals of the Slave and Khilji Kings. There is only this to choose between them, that the latter concerned themselves with kings who, however degenerate, were at least real, whereas these occupants of Akbar"s throne, Farokhshir, the two infant princes who were in turn raised to power by political factions, and Mahomed-Shah, were all purely puppets.
The first-named, who owed his kingdom entirely to the ability for intrigue of two Syyeds of Ba"rr"ha, spent his time largely in trying to emanc.i.p.ate himself from their claims on his grat.i.tude. His was a feeble, futile nature, a feeble, futile reign. During it the Mahrattas, becoming tired of their civil war of succession, began to renew their depredations along the Moghul frontiers. But in all ways Farokhshir was a timid creature; so nothing, great was done to hold the marauders in check. He, however, through the aid of a general with an unp.r.o.nounceable name, was equal to a final tussle and final crushing of the Sikh zealots, seven hundred and forty-nine of whom, defeated and taken prisoners to Delhi, were duly paraded through the streets, exposed to various indignities, and finally beheaded in batches of one hundred and eleven on seven successive days of the week.
Their leader, Banda, was, however, reserved for more refined barbarity. Nothing in the whole annals of history can exceed in devilish malignant cruelty the revolting details of the treatment meted out to this man, who had himself, it is true, led the way in lack of humanity! They are sickening to read, and shall not be repeated here.
Farokhshir only reigned six years. By that time even his masters, the Syyeds, had tired of him, and despite his abject submission, he was finally dragged from the women"s apartments, a faint, frightened shadow of a king, and privately made away with.
But these same Syyeds--king-makers as they justly called themselves--were unfortunate in their choice of a successor. They set up one young prince of the blood, who promptly died of consumption in less than three months. They followed him with another, who as promptly followed his example in less time.
The question naturally presents itself--was it tuberculosis or some other toxin? Who can say?
They then, in despair, chose a healthy young man. But the public confidence in them as king-makers was waning, and almost before the new emperor--who was enthroned in the t.i.tle of Mahomed-Shah--was firmly settled in his seat, Hussan-Ali--the most powerful of the two Syyeds--was a.s.sa.s.sinated in his palanquin, and his brother, after vainly trying to hold his own single-handed, was defeated and made prisoner near Delhi, his life being spared out of respect for his sacred lineage--Syyeds being descended directly from the great Prophet.
And all this time, while emperors intrigued against ministers, and ministers intrigued against emperors, while here and there some austere old Mahomedan like Asaf-Jah (whilom Grand Vizier, and afterwards Governor in the Dekkan), who remembered the bigoted decorum of Aurungzebe"s court, lifted up voice of warning and held up holy hands of horror--all this time the Western nibblings continued on the sea-coast, and in the interior the Mahratta power was growing day by day.
For some time the Moghuls kept themselves fairly secure of it by pitting Samba, the one claimant to the crown, against Saho, the other claimant. But Saho found a friend in the person of one Bala-ji, a Brahmin, who began life as a mere village accountant. Ere long, however, he was his master"s right hand, and it was by his wits that Saho found himself no longer a mere va.s.sal of the empire, but an independent ruler, ent.i.tled to claim endless minor dues over a large extent of land. A quick wit was this of Bala-ji"s, which recognised the infinite opportunities for encroachments and interference given by widespread, ill-defined rights.
In the confusion worse confounded which ensued, the Mahratta scored invariably against the Moghul, and when Bala-ji died, his son, still more capable, still more astute, took up the prime minister or Peishwa-ship, and with it his father"s life-work.
Now, there is no doubt that this son, by name Baji-Rao, is, after Siva-ji, by far the ablest Mahratta of history.
He was a warrior, born and bred in camps, a statesman educated ably by his father, a man frank and free, hardy beyond most, content to live on a handful of unhusked grain, vital to the fingertips.
He found himself confronted by a Peace-party, who would fain have paused to consolidate what had already been won, to suppress civil discord, and generally to give a firm administrative grip on the south of India before attempting further conquests on the north.
But Baji-Rao was clear-sighted; he saw the difficulties of this policy. To attempt the consolidation of what was still absolutely fluid, to bid the bands of predatory hors.e.m.e.n which const.i.tuted the Mahratta army suddenly lay down their lances or turn them into ox goads, would be fatal.
The only chance of peace was to form a regular army out of these robber hordes, give that army work to do, and so establish a stern military control as the first and most necessary step towards a fixed Government.
The Moghul empire lay ready to hand, rotten at the core, simply waiting to be overthrown.