I have left to the last the witnesses who might otherwise have been suspected--I mean the Hindus themselves. The whole of their literature from one end to the other is pervaded by expressions of love and reverence for truth. Their very word for truth is full of meaning. It is s a t or s a t y a, s a t being the participle of the verb _as_, to be.
True, therefore, was with them simply _that which is_. The English _sooth_ is connected with sat, also the Greek ?? for es??, and the Latin _sens_, in _praesens_.
We are all very apt to consider truth to be what is trowed by others, or believed in by large majorities. That kind of truth is easy to accept. But whoever has once stood alone, surrounded by noisy a.s.sertions, and overwhelmed by the clamor of those who ought to know better, or perhaps who did know better--call him Galileo or Darwin, Colenso or Stanley, or any other name--he knows what a real delight it is to feel in his heart of hearts, this is true--this is--this is s a t--whatever daily, weekly, or quarterly papers, whatever bishops, archbishops, or popes, may say to the contrary.
Another name for truth is the Sanskrit _r i_t a, which originally seems to have meant _straight_, _direct_, while a n_r i_t a is untrue, false.
Now one of the highest praises bestowed upon the G.o.ds in the Veda is that they are s a t y a, true, truthful, trustworthy;[62] and it is well known that both in modern and ancient times, men always ascribe to G.o.d or to their G.o.ds those qualities which they value most in themselves.
Other words applied to the G.o.ds as truthful beings are, a d r o g h a, lit. not deceiving.[63] A d r o g h a-v a _k_ means, he whose word is never broken. Thus Indra, the Vedic Jupiter, is said to have been praised by the fathers[64] "as reaching the enemy, overcoming him, standing on the summit, _true of speech_, most powerful in thought."
D r o g h a v a _k_,[65] on the contrary, is used for deceitful men. Thus Vasish_th_a, one of the great Vedic poets, says: "If I had worshipped false G.o.ds, or if I believed in the G.o.ds vainly--but why art thou angry with us, O _G_atavedas? May liars go to destruction!"
S a t y a m, as a neuter, is often used as an abstract, and is then rightly translated by truth. But it also means that which is, the true, the real; and there are several pa.s.sages in the Rig-Veda where, instead of _truth_, I think we ought simply to translate s a t y a m by the true, that is, the real, t? ??t?? ??.[66] It sounds, no doubt, very well to translate Satyena uttabhita bhumi_h_ by "the earth is founded on truth;" and I believe every translator has taken s a t y a in that sense here. Ludwig translates, "Von der Wahrheit ist die Erde gestutzt." But such an idea, if it conveys any tangible meaning at all, is far too abstract for those early poets and philosophers. They meant to say "the earth, such as we see it, is held up, that is, rests on something real, though we may not see it, on something which they called the Real,[67]
and to which, in course of time, they gave many more names, such as _R i_ t a, the right, B r a h m a n," etc.
Of course where there is that strong reverence for truth, there must also be the sense of guilt arising from untruth. And thus we hear one poet pray that the waters may wash him clean, and carry off all his sins and all untruth:
"Carry away, ye waters,[68] whatever evil there is in me, wherever I may have deceived, or may have cursed, and also all untruth (an_ri_tam)."[69]
Or again, in the Atharva-Veda IV. 16:
"May all thy fatal snares, which stand spread out seven by seven and threefold, catch the man who tells a lie, may they pa.s.s by him who tells the truth!"
From the Brahma_n_as, or theological treatises of the Brahmans, I shall quote a few pa.s.sages only:
"Whosoever[70] speaks the truth, makes the fire on his own altar blaze up, as if he poured b.u.t.ter into the lighted fire.
His own light grows larger, and from to-morrow to to-morrow he becomes better. But whosoever speaks untruth, he quenches the fire on his altar, as if he poured water into the lighted fire; his own light grows smaller and smaller, and from to-morrow to to-morrow he becomes more wicked. Let man therefore speak truth only."[71]
And again:[72] "A man becomes impure by uttering falsehood."
And again:[73] "As a man who steps on the edge of a sword placed over a pit cries out, I shall slip, I shall slip into the pit, so let a man guard himself from falsehood (or sin)."
In later times we see the respect for truth carried to such an extreme, that even a promise, unwittingly made, is considered to be binding.
In the Ka_th_a-Upanishad, for instance, a father is introduced offering what is called an _All_-sacrifice, where everything is supposed to be given up. His son, who is standing by, taunts his father with not having altogether fulfilled his vow, because he has not sacrificed his son. Upon this, the father, though angry and against his will, is obliged to sacrifice his son. Again, when the son arrives in the lower world, he is allowed by the Judge of the Dead to ask for three favors. He then asks to be restored to life, to be taught some sacrificial mysteries, and, as the third boon, he asks to know what becomes of man after he is dead. Yama, the lord of the Departed, tries in vain to be let off from answering this last question. But he, too, is bound by his promise, and then follows a discourse on life after death, or immortal life, which forms one of the most beautiful chapters in the ancient literature of India.
The whole plot of one of the great epic poems, the Ramaya_n_a, rests on a rash promise given by Da_s_aratha, king of Ayodhya, to his second wife, Kaikeyi, that he would grant her two boons. In order to secure the succession to her own son, she asks that Rama, the eldest son by the king"s other wife, should be banished for fourteen years. Much as the king repents his promise, Rama, his eldest son, would on no account let his father break his word, and he leaves his kingdom to wander in the forest with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshma_n_a.
After the father"s death, the son of the second wife declines the throne, and comes to Rama to persuade him to accept the kingdom of his father. But all in vain. Rama will keep his exile for fourteen years, and never disown his father"s promise. Here follows a curious dialogue between a Brahman _G_abali and Prince Rama, of which I shall give some extracts:[74]
"The Brahman, who is a priest and courtier, says, "Well, descendant of Raghu, do not thou, so n.o.ble in sentiments, and austere in character, entertain, like a common man, this useless thought. What man is a kinsman of any other? What relationship has any one with another? A man is born alone and dies alone. Hence he who is attached to any one as his father or his mother, is to be regarded as if he were insane, for no one belongs to another. Thou oughtest not to abandon thy father"s kingdom and stay here in a sad and miserable abode, attended with many trials. Let thyself be inaugurated king in the wealthy Ayodhya. Da_s_aratha, thy father is nothing to thee, or thou to him; the king is one, and thou another, do therefore what is said.... Then offer oblations to the departed spirits (of thy forefathers) on prescribed days; but see what a waste of food! For what can a dead man eat? If what is eaten by one here enters into the body of another (viz., of the departed), let _S_raddhas be offered to those who are travelling; they need not then get food to eat on their journey. These books (the Vedas), (which enjoin men to) sacrifice, give, consecrate themselves, practise austerities, and forsake the world, are composed by clever men to induce others to bestow gifts. Authoritative words do not fall from heaven. Let me, and others like yourselves, embrace whatever a.s.sertion is supported by reason. Adhere to what is apparent to the senses, and reject what is invisible.... _This world is the next world_; do thou therefore enjoy pleasure, for every virtuous man does not gain it. Virtuous men are greatly distressed, while the unrighteous are seen to be happy.""
These positivist sentiments sound strange, particularly from the mouth of a Brahman. But the poet evidently wishes to represent a Brahman living at court, who has an argument ready for anything and everything that is likely to please his king.
But what does Rama answer? "The words," he says, "which you have addressed to me, though they recommend what _seems_ to be right and salutary, advise, in fact, the contrary. The sinful transgressor, who lives according to the rules of heretical systems, obtains no esteem from good men. It is good conduct that marks a man to be n.o.ble or ign.o.ble, heroic or a pretender to manliness, pure or impure. Truth and mercy are immemorial characteristics of a king"s conduct. Hence royal rule is in its essence _truth_. On truth the word is based. Both sages and G.o.ds have esteemed truth. The man who speaks truth in this world attains the highest imperishable state. Men shrink with fear and horror from a liar as from a serpent. In this world the chief element in virtue is truth; it is called the basis of everything. Truth is lord in the world; virtue always rests on truth. All things are founded on truth; nothing is higher than it. Why, then, should I not be true to my promise, and faithfully observe the truthful injunction given by my father? Neither through covetousness, nor delusion, nor ignorance, will I, overpowered by darkness, break through the barrier of truth, but remain true to my promise to my father. How shall I, having promised to him that I would thus reside in the forests, transgress his injunction, and do what Bharata recommends?"
The other epic poem too, the Mahabharata, is full of episodes showing a profound regard for truth and an almost slavish submission to a pledge once given. The death of Bhishma, one of the most important events in the story of the Mahabharata, is due to his vow never to hurt a woman. He is thus killed by _S_ikhandin, whom he takes to be a woman.[75]
Were I to quote from all the law-books, and from still later works, everywhere you would hear the same key-note of truthfulness vibrating through them all.
We must not, however, suppress the fact that, under certain circ.u.mstances, a lie was allowed, or, at all events, excused by Indian lawgivers. Thus Gautama says:[76] "An untruth spoken by people under the influence of anger, excessive joy, fear, pain, or grief, by infants, by very old men, by persons laboring under a delusion, being under the influence of drink, or by madmen, does not cause the speaker to fall, or, as we should say, is a venial, not a mortal sin."[77]
This is a large admission, yet even in that open admission there is a certain amount of honesty. Again and again in the Mahabharata is this excuse pleaded.[78] Nay, there is in the Mahabharata[79] the well-known story of Kau_s_ika, called Satyavadin, the Truth-speaker, who goes to h.e.l.l for having spoken the truth. He once saw men flying into the forest before robbers (dasyu). The robbers came up soon after them, and asked Kau_s_ika, which way the fugitives had taken. He told them the truth, and the men were caught by the robbers and killed.
But Kau_s_ika, we are told, went to h.e.l.l for having spoken the truth.
The Hindus may seem to have been a priest-ridden race, and their devotion to sacrifice and ceremonial is well known. Yet this is what the poet of the Mahabharata dares to say:
"Let a thousand sacrifices (of a horse) and truth be weighed in the balance--truth will exceed the thousand sacrifices."[80]
These are words addressed by _S_akuntala, the deserted wife, to King Dushyanta, when he declined to recognize her and his son. And when he refuses to listen to her appeal, what does she appeal to as the highest authority?--_The voice of conscience._
"If you think I am alone," she says to the king, "you do not know that wise man within your heart. He knows of your evil deed--in _his_ sight you commit sin. A man who has committed sin may think that no one knows it. The G.o.ds know it and the old man within."[81]
This must suffice. I say once more that I do not wish to represent the people of India as two hundred and fifty-three millions of angels, but I do wish it to be understood and to be accepted as a fact, that the damaging charge of untruthfulness brought against that people is utterly unfounded with regard to ancient times. It is not only not true, but the very opposite of the truth. As to modern times, and I date them from about 1000 after Christ, I can only say that, after reading the accounts of the terrors and horrors of Mohammedan rule, my wonder is that so much of native virtue and truthfulness should have survived. You might as well expect a mouse to speak the truth before a cat, as a Hindu before a Mohammedan judge.[82] If you frighten a child, that child will tell a lie; if you terrorize millions, you must not be surprised if they try to escape from your fangs. Truthfulness is a luxury, perhaps the greatest, and let me a.s.sure you, the most expensive luxury in our life--and happy the man who has been able to enjoy it from his very childhood. It may be easy enough in our days and in a free country, like England, never to tell a lie--but the older we grow, the harder we find it to be always true, to speak the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. The Hindus too had made that discovery. They too knew how hard, nay how impossible it is, always to speak the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.
There is a short story in the _S_atapatha Brahma_n_a, to my mind full of deep meaning, and pervaded by the real sense of truth, the real sense of the difficulty of truth. His kinsman said to Aru_n_a Aupave_s_i, "Thou art advanced in years, establish thou the sacrificial fires." He replied: "Thereby you tell me henceforth to keep silence. For he who has established the fires must not speak an untruth, and only by not speaking at all, one speaks no untruth. To that extent the service of the sacrificial fires consists in truth."[83]
I doubt whether in any other of the ancient literatures of the world you will find traces of that extreme sensitiveness of conscience which despairs of our ever speaking the truth, and which declares silence gold, and speech silver, though, in a much higher sense than our proverb.
What I should wish to impress on those who will soon find themselves the rulers of millions of human beings in India, is the duty to shake off national prejudices, which are apt to degenerate into a kind of madness. I have known people with a brown skin whom I could look up to as my betters. Look for them in India, and you will find them, and if you meet with disappointments, as no doubt you will, think of the people with white skins whom you have trusted, and whom you can trust no more. We are all apt to be Pharisees in international judgments. I read only a few days ago in a pamphlet written by an enlightened politician, the following words:
"Experience only can teach that nothing is so truly astonishing to a morally depraved people as the phenomenon of a race of men in whose word perfect confidence may be placed[84].... The natives are conscious of their inferiority in nothing so much as in this. They require to be taught rect.i.tude of conduct much more than literature and science."
If you approach the Hindus with such feelings, you will teach them neither rect.i.tude, nor science, nor literature. Nay, they might appeal to their own literature, even to their law-books, to teach us at least one lesson of truthfulness, truthfulness to ourselves, or, in other words, humility.
What does Ya_gn_avalkya say?[85]
"It is not our hermitage," he says--our religion we might say--"still less the color of our skin, that produces virtue; virtue must be practiced. Therefore let no one do to others what he would not have done to himself."
And the laws of the Manavas, which were so much abused by Mill, what do they teach?[86]
"Evil-doers think indeed that no one sees them; but the G.o.ds see them, and the old man within."
"Self is the witness of Self, Self is the refuge of Self. Do not despise thy own Self, the highest witness of men."[87]
"If, friend, thou thinkest thou art self-alone, remember there is the silent thinker (the Highest Self) always within thy heart, and _he_ sees what is good and what is evil."[88]
"O friend, whatever good thou mayest have done from thy very birth, all will go to the dogs, if thou speak an untruth."
Or in Vasish_th_a, x.x.x. 1:
"Practice righteousness, not unrighteousness; speak truth, not untruth; look far, not near; look up toward the highest, not toward anything low."
No doubt there is moral depravity in India, and where is there no moral depravity in this world? But to appeal to international statistics would be, I believe, a dangerous game. Nor must we forget that our standards of morality differ, and, on some points, differ considerably from those recognized in India; and we must not wonder if sons do not at once condemn as criminal what their fathers and grandfathers considered right. Let us hold by all means to _our_ sense of what is right and what is wrong; but in judging others, whether in public or in private life, whether as historians or politicians, let us not forget that a kindly spirit will never do any harm. Certainly I can imagine nothing more mischievous, more dangerous, more fatal to the permanence of English rule in India, than for the young civil servants to go to that country with the idea that it is a sink of moral depravity, an ants" nest of lies; for no one is so sure to go wrong, whether in public or in private life, as he who says in his haste: "All men are liars."
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 17: Mill"s "History of British India," ed. Wilson, vol. i., p. 375.]
[Footnote 18: Keshub Chunder Sen is the present spiritual director of the Brahmo Sama_g_, the theistic organization founded by the late Rammohun Roy.--A. W.]