Irish Opposition to Great Britain After 1900
After centuries of violent opposition to British occupation, the Irish tried an experiment in non-violent non-cooperation after 1900. Arthur Griffith was inspired to use in Ireland the techniques employed in the Hungarian independence movement of 1866-1867. His Sinn Fein party, organized in 1906, determined to set up an independent government for Ireland outside the framework of the United Kingdom. When the Home Rule Act of 1914 was not put into operation because of the war, Sinn Fein gained ground. In the elections of 1918, three fourths of the successful Irish candidates were members of the party, so they met at Dublin as an Irish parliament rather than proceeding to Westminster. In 1921, after a new Home Rule Act had resulted only in additional opposition, the British government negotiated a settlement with the representatives of the "Irish Republic," which set up the "Irish Free State" as a self-governing dominion within the British Commonwealth. The Irish accepted the treaty, and the Irish problem was on its way to settlement, although later events were to prove that Ireland would not be satisfied until she had demonstrated that the new status made her in fact independent. Her neutrality in the present war should dispel all doubts.[47]
FOOTNOTE:
[47] Brockway, _Non-Co-operation_, 71-92; William I. Hull, _The War Method and the Peace Method: An Historical Contrast_ (New York: Revell, 1929), 229-231; Hayes, _Modern Europe_, II, 498-501, 876-879, 952-953.
Strikes with Political Purposes
British workers themselves have made use of strikes with political significance. In 1920, transport workers refused to handle goods destined to be used in the war against the Bolshevik regime in Russia, and thus forced Britain to cease her intervention.[48] In 1926, the general strike in Britain had revolutionary implications which the Government and the public recognized only too well. Hence the widespread opposition to it. The leaders of the strike were even frightened themselves, and called it off suddenly, leaving the ma.s.ses of the workers completely bewildered.[49]
In Germany, non-cooperation has also been used successfully. In 1920, a general strike defeated the attempt of the militarists to seize control of the state in the Kapp Putsch. In 1924, when the French Army invaded the Ruhr, the non-violent refusal of the German workers to mine coal for France had the support of the whole German nation. As the saying was at the time, "You can"t mine coal with bayonets." Finally the French withdrew from their fruitless adventure.[50]
FOOTNOTES:
[48] Allen, _Fight for Peace_, 633-634; Huxley, _Ends and Means_, 169-170.
[49] Berkman, _Communist Anarchism_, 247-248.
[50] Oswald Garrison Villard"s "Preface" to Shridharani, _War Without Violence_, xiv-xv.
Non-Violence in International Affairs
In the international field, we also have examples of the use of non-violent coercion. Thomas Jefferson, during the struggle for the recognition of American neutral rights by Britain and France, attempted to employ the economic weapons of pre-revolutionary days. His embargo upon American commerce and the later variants on that policy, designed to force the belligerents to recognize the American position, actually were more costly to American shippers than were the depredations of the French and the British, so they forced a reversal of American policy.
The war against England that followed did not have the support of the shipping interests, whose trade it was supposedly trying to protect. It was more an adventure in American imperialism than it was an attempt to defend neutral rights, so it can hardly be said to have grown out of the issues which led to Jefferson"s use of economic sanctions. The whole incident proves that the country which attempts to use this method in international affairs must expect to lose its own trade in the process.
The cause must be great indeed before such undramatic losses become acceptable.[51]
The same principle is ill.u.s.trated in the attempt to impose economic sanctions on Italy in 1935 and 1936. The nations who made a gesture toward using them actually did not want to hinder Italian expansion, or did not want to do so enough to surrender their trade with Italy. The inevitable result was that the sanctions failed.
The success of non-violent coercion is by no means a.s.sured in every case. It depends upon (1) the existence of a grievance great enough to justify the suffering that devolves upon the resisters, (2) the dependence of the opposition on the cooperation of the resisters, (3) solidarity among a large enough number of resisters, and (4) in most cases, the favorable reaction of the public not involved in the conflict. When all or most of these factors have been present, non-violent coercion has succeeded in our western society. On other occasions it has failed. But one who remembers the utter defeat of the Austrian socialists who employed arms against Chancellor Dolfuss in 1934 must admit that violent coercion also has its failures.[52]
FOOTNOTES:
[51] Louis Martin Sears, _Jefferson and the Embargo_ (Durham, N. C.: Duke University, 1927); Julius W. Pratt, _Expansionists of 1812_ (New York: Macmillan, 1925).
[52] De Ligt, 131. For other statements concerning the virtual impossibility of violent revolution today see De Ligt, 81-82, 162-163; Horace G. Alexander, "Great Possessions" in Gerald Heard, _et. al._, _The New Pacifism_ (London: Allenson, 1936), 89-91; Huxley, _Ends and Means_, 178-179; Lewis, _Case Against Pacifism_, 112-113.
V. SATYAGRAHA OR NON-VIOLENT DIRECT ACTION
There is a distinction between those who employ non-violent methods of opposition on the basis of expediency and those who refuse to use violence on the basis of principle. In the minds of many pacifists the movement for Indian independence under the leadership of Mohandas K.
Gandhi stands out as the supreme example of a political revolt which has insisted on this principle, and hence as a model to be followed in any pacifist movement of social, economic, or political reform. Gandhi"s Satyagraha, therefore, deserves careful a.n.a.lysis in the light of pacifist principles.
Western critics of Gandhi"s methods are p.r.o.ne to insist that they may be applicable in the Orient, but that they can never be applied in the same way within our western culture. We have already seen that there have been many non-violent movements of reform within our western society, but those that we have examined have been based on expediency.
Undoubtedly the widespread Hindu acceptance of the principle of _ahimsa_, or non-killing, even in the case of animals, prepared the way for Gandhi more completely than would have been the case in western society.
The Origins of Satyagraha
Shridharani has traced for us the origins of this distinctive Hindu philosophy of _ahimsa_. It arose from the idea of the sacrifice, which the Aryans brought to India with them at least 1500 years before Christ.
From a gesture of propitiation of the G.o.ds, sacrifice gradually turned into a magic formula which would work automatically to procure desired ends and eliminate evil. In time the Hindus came to believe that the most effective type of sacrifice was self-sacrifice and suffering, accompanied by a refusal to injure others, or _ahimsa_.[53] Only the warrior caste of _Kshatriyas_ was allowed to fight. In his autobiography, Gandhi brings out clearly the pious nature of his home environment, and the emphasis which was placed there upon not eating meat because of the sacred character of animal life.[54]
It is not surprising that a logical mind reared in such an environment should have espoused the principle of non-killing. In his western education Gandhi became acquainted with The Sermon on the Mount, and the writings of Tolstoy and Th.o.r.eau, but he tells us himself that he was attracted to these philosophies because they expressed ideas in which he already believed.[55]
In fact, the Hindese have long employed the non-violent methods of resistance which Gandhi has encouraged in our own day. In 1830, the population of the State of Mysore carried on a great movement of non-cooperation against the exploitation by the native despot, during which they refused to work or pay taxes, and retired into the forests.
There was no disorder or use of arms. The official report of the British Government said:
"The natives understand very well the use of such measures to defend themselves against the abuse of authority. The method most in use, and that which gives the best results, is complete non-co-operation in all that concerns the Government, the administration and public life generally."[56]
In about 1900 there was a great movement of non-cooperation under the leadership of Aurobindo Ghose against the British Government in Bengal.
Ghose wanted independence and freedom from foreign tribute. He called upon the people to demonstrate their fitness for self-government by establishing hygienic conditions, founding schools, building roads and developing agriculture. But Ghose had the experience Gandhi was to have later. The people became impatient and fell back on violence; and the British then employed counter-violence to crush the movement completely.[57]
The term "Satyagraha" itself was, however, a contribution of Gandhi. It was coined about 1906 in connection with the Indian movement of non-violent resistance in South Africa. Previously the English term "pa.s.sive resistance" had been used, but Gandhi tells us that when he discovered that among Europeans, "it was supposed to be a weapon of the weak, that it could be characterized by hatred and that it could finally manifest itself as violence," he was forced to find a new word to carry his idea. The result was a combination of the Gujerati words _Sat_, meaning truth, and _Agraha_, meaning firmness--hence "truth force," or as it has been translated since, "soul force."[58]
FOOTNOTES:
[53] Shridharani, _War Without Violence_, 165-167.
[54] M. K. Gandhi, _The Story of My Experiments with Truth_, translated by Mahadev Desai and Pyrelal Nair (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Press, 1927-1929), the earlier portions of Vol. I.
[55] _Ibid._, I, 322; Shridharani, 167.
[56] Quoted by De Ligt, _Conquest of Violence_, 89.
[57] _Ibid._, 89-90.
[58] Gandhi, _Experiments with Truth_, II, 153-154.
The Process of Satyagraha
Shridharani, who considers himself a follower of Gandhi, has given us a comprehensive a.n.a.lysis of Satyagraha as a ma.s.s movement. He begins his discussion with this statement of the conditions under which it is possible:
"Satyagraha, as an organized ma.s.s action, presupposes that _the community concerned has a grievance which practically every member of that community feels_. This grievance should be of such large proportions that it could be transformed, in its positive side, into a "Cause" rightfully claiming sacrifice and suffering from the community on its behalf."[59]
This necessity for community solidarity is often overlooked by followers of Gandhi who advocate reforms by means of non-violent direct action in our western society. Given the grievance of British rule, Shridharani believes that the Hindese were willing to accept Satyagraha first because, unarmed under British law, no other means were available to them, and then because they were predisposed to the method because of the Hindu philosophy of non-violence and the mystic belief that truth will triumph eventually since it is a force greater than the physical.[60]
The first step in Satyagraha is negotiation and arbitration with the adversary. Under these terms Shridharani includes the use of legislative channels, direct negotiations, and arbitration by third parties.[61] In reading his discussion one gets the impression that under the American system of government the later stages of Satyagraha would never be necessary, since the Satyagrahi must first exhaust all the avenues of political expression and legislative action which are open to him. If any sizeable group in American society displayed on any issue the solidarity required for successful use of this method, their political influence would undoubtedly be great enough to effect a change in the law, imperfect though American democracy may be.