"Hope springs eternal in the human breast; Man never _is_, but always =to be= blest."
_Pope._
"Who _was_, and who _is_, and who _is_ =to come=."--_Bible._ It is not that a man thinks himself already in possession of a sufficiency, but hopes =to be= qualified, etc.
I _am to go_ in an hour. He _is to go_ to-morrow. I _am_ ready _to hear_ you recite your lesson. He _has been waiting_ a long time _to see_ if some new principles will not be introduced. He is prepared _to appear_ before you whenever you shall direct. We _are_ resolved _to employ_ neuter verbs, potential and subjunctive moods, im-perfect, plu-perfect, and second future tenses, no longer. False grammars _are_ only fit-_ted to be_ laid aside. We are in duty bound _to regard_ and _adopt_ truth, and _reject_ error; and we _are_ determined _to do_ it in grammar, and every thing else.
We are not surprised that people cannot comprehend grammar, as usually taught, for it is exceedingly difficult to make error appear like truth, or false teaching like sound sentiment. But I will not stop to moralize.
The hints I have given must suffice.
Much more might be said upon the character and use of verbs; but as these lectures are not designed for _a system_ of grammar _to be taught_, but to expose the errors of existing systems, and prepare the way for a more rational and consistent exposition of language, I shall leave this department of our subject, presuming you will be able to comprehend our views, and appreciate their importance. We have been somewhat critical in a part of our remarks, and more brief than we should have been, had we not found that we were claiming too much of the time of the Inst.i.tute, which is designed as a means of improvement on general subjects. Enough has been said, I am sure, to convince you, if you were not convinced before, why the study of grammar is so intricate and tedious, that it is to be accounted for from the fact that the theories by which it is taught are false in principle, and can not be adopted in practice; and that something ought to be done to make the study of language easy, interesting, and practical. Such a work is here attempted; but it remains with the public to say whether these plain philosophical principles shall be sustained, matured, perfected, and adopted in schools, or the old roundabout course of useless and ineffectual teaching be still preserved.
LECTURE XIV.
ON CONTRACTIONS.
A temporary expedient.--Words not understood.--All words must have a meaning.--Their formation.--Changes of meaning and form.--Should be observed.--=Adverbs=.--Ending in _ly_.--Examples.--Ago.--Astray.
--Awake.--Asleep.--Then, when.--There, where, here.--While, till.--Whether, together.--Ever, never, whenever, etc.--Oft.--Hence.
--Perhaps.--Not.--Or.--Nor.--Than.--As.--So.--Distinctions false.--Rule 18.--If.--But.--Tho.--Yet.
We have concluded our remarks on the necessary divisions of words.
Things _named_, _defined_ and _described_, and their _actions_, _relations_, and _tendencies_, have been considered under the cla.s.ses of Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. To these cla.s.ses all words belong when properly explained; a fact we desire you to bear constantly in mind in all your attempts to understand and employ language. But there are many words in our language as well as most others, which are so altered and disguised that their meaning is not easily comprehended. Of course they are difficult of explanation. These words we have cla.s.sed under the head of _Contractions_, a term better calculated than any other we have seen adopted to express their character. We do not however lay any stress on the appropriateness of this appellation, but adopt it as a temporary expedient, till these words shall be better understood. They will then be ranked in their proper places among the cla.s.ses already noticed.
Under this head may be considered the words usually known as "adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections." That the etymology and meaning of these words have not been generally understood will be conceded, I presume, on all hands. In our opinion, that is the only reason why they have been considered under these different heads, for in numberless cases there is nothing in their import to correspond with such distinctions. Why "an adverb expresses some _quality_ or circ.u.mstance respecting a verb, adjective, or other adverb;" why "a conjunction is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of _two_ to make only _one_ sentence;" or why "prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and show the relation between them," has never been explained. They have been _pa.s.sed over_ with little difficulty by teachers, having been furnished with lists of words in each "part of speech," which they require their pupils to commit to memory, and "for ever after hold their peace" concerning them. But that these words have been defined or explained in a way to be understood will not be pretended. In justification of such ignorance, it is contended that such explanation is not essential to their proper and elegant use. If such is the fact, we may easily account for the incorrect use of language, and exonerate children from the labor of studying etymology.
But these words have meaning, and sustain a most important rank in the expression of ideas. They are, generally, abbreviated, compounded, and so disguised that their origin and formation are not generally known.
Horne Tooke calls them "the _wheels_ of language, the _wings_ of Mercury." He says "tho we might be dragged along without them, it would be with much difficulty, very heavily and tediously." But when he undertakes to show that they were _constructed_ for this object, he mistakes their true character; for they were not invented for that purpose, but were originally employed as nouns or verbs, from which they have been corrupted by use. And he seems to admit this fact when he says,[19] "_abbreviation_ and _corruption_ are always busiest with the words which are most frequently in use. Letters, like soldiers, being very apt to desert and drop off in a long march, and especially if their pa.s.sage happens to lie near the confines of an enemy"s country."
In the original construction of language a set of literary men did not get together and manufacture a lot of words, finished thro out and exactly adapted to the expression of thought. Had that been the case, language would doubtless have appeared in a much more regular, stiff, and formal dress, and been deprived of many of its beautiful and lofty figures, its richest and boldest expressions. Necessity is the mother of invention. It was not until people had _ideas_ to communicate, that they sought a medium for the transmission of thought from one to another; and then such sounds and signs were adopted as would best answer their purpose. But language was not then framed like a cotton mill, every part completed before it was set in operation. Single expressions, _sign_-ificant of things, or _ideas_ of _things_ and _actions_, were first employed, in the most simple, plain, and easy manner.[20] As the human mind advanced in knowledge, by observing the character, relations, and differences of things, words were changed, altered, compounded, and contracted, so as to keep pace with such advancement; just as many simple parts of a machine, operating on perfect and distinct principles, may be combined together and form a most complicated, curious, and powerful engine, of astonishing power, and great utility. In the adaptation of steam to locomotives, the principles on which stationary engines operated were somewhat modified. Some wheels, shafts, bands, screws, etc., were omitted, others of a different kind were added, till the whole appeared in a new character, and the engine, before fixed to a spot, was seen traversing the road with immense rapidity. The principles of the former engine, so far from being unessential, were indispensable to the construction of the new one, and should be clearly understood by him who would build or _use_ the latter.
So, in the formation of language, simple _first_ principles must be observed and traced thro all their ramifications, by those who would obtain a clear and thoro knowledge of it, or "read and write it with propriety."
In mathematics, the four simple rules, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, form the basis on which that interesting science depends. The modifications of these rules, according to their various capabilities, will give a complete knowledge of all that can be known of numbers, relations, and proportions, an acme to which all may aspire, tho none have yet attained it. The principles of language are equally simple, and, if correctly explained, may be as well understood.
But the difficulty under which we labor in this department of science, is the paucity of _means_ to trace back to their original form and meaning many words and phrases in common use among us. Language has been employed as the vehicle of thought, for six thousand years, and in that long s.p.a.ce has undergone many and strange modifications. At the dispersion from Babel, and the "confusion of tongues" occasioned thereby, people were thrown upon their own resources, and left to pick up by piecemeal such shreds as should afterwards be wove into a system, and adopted by their respective nations. Wars, pestilence, and famine, as well as commerce, enterprize, literature, and religion, brought the different nations into intercourse with each other; and changes were thus produced in the languages of such people. Whoever will take the trouble to compare the idioms of speech adopted by those nations whose affairs, civil, political, and religious, are most intimately allied, will be convinced of the correctness of the sentiment now advanced.
In the lapse of ages, words would not only change their form, but in a measure their meaning, so as to correspond with the ideas of those who use them. Some would become obsolete, and others be adopted in their stead. Many words are found in the Bible which are not in common use; and the manner of spelling, as well as some entire words, have been changed in that book, since it was translated and first published in 1610. With these examples you are familiar, and I shall be spared the necessity of quoting them. I have already made some extracts from old writers, and may have occasion to do so again before I close this lecture.
The words which we cla.s.s under the head of Contractions, are so altered and disguised in their appearance, that their etymology and connexion are not generally understood. It may appear like pedantry in me to attempt an investigation into their origin and meaning. But to avoid that charge, I will frankly acknowledge the truth, and own my inability to do justice to this subject, by offering a full explanation of all the words which belong to this cla.s.s. I will be candid, if I am not successful. But I think most of the words long considered difficult, may be easily explained; enough to convince you of the feasibility of the ground we have a.s.sumed, and furnish a sample by which to pursue the subject in all our future inquiries into the etymology of words.
But even if I fail in this matter, I shall have one comfort left, that I am not alone in the transgression; for no philologist, with few exceptions, has done any thing like justice to this subject. Our common grammars have not even attempted an inquiry into the _meaning_ of these words, but have treated them as tho they had none. Cla.s.ses, like pens or reservoirs, are made for them, into which they are thrown, and allowed to rest, only to be named, without being disturbed. Sometimes, however, they are found in one enclosure, sometimes in another, more by mistake, I apprehend, than by intention; for "prepositions" under certain circ.u.mstances are pa.r.s.ed as "adverbs," and "adverbs" as "adjectives,"
and "conjunctions" as either "adverbs" or "prepositions;" and not unfrequently the whole go off together, like the tail of the dragon, drawing other respectable words along with them, under the sweeping cognomen of "adverbial phrases," or "conjunctive expressions;" as, Can you write your lesson? _Not yet quite well enough._ "_But and if_ that evil servant,"[21] etc. Mr. Murray says, "the same word is occasionally used _both as_ a conjunction _and as_ an adverb, and sometimes _as_ a preposition.
Let these words be correctly defined, their meaning be ferreted out from the rubbish in which they have been enclosed; or have their dismembered parts restored to them, they will then appear in their true character, and their connexion with other words will be found regular and easy.
Until such work is accomplished, they may as well be called contractions, for such they _mostly_ are, as adverbs or any thing else; for that appellation we regard as more appropriate than any other.
In the attempts we are about to make, we shall endeavor to be guided by sound philosophic principles and the light of patient investigation; and whatever advances we may make shall be in strict accordance with the true and practical use of these words.
Let us begin with _Adverbs_.
I have not time to go into a thoro investigation of the mistakes into which grammarians have fallen in their attempts to explain this "part of speech." Mr. Murray says they "seem originally to have been _contrived_ to express compendiously in _one word_, what must _otherwise_ have required two or more; as, "he acted _wisely_." They could have been "_contrived_" for no such purpose, for we have already seen that they are made up of various words combined together, which are used to express relation, to define or describe other things. Take the very example Mr. M. has given. _Wisely_ is made up of two words; _wise_ and _like_. "He acted wisely," wise-like. What did he _act_? _Wisely_, we are taught, expresses the "_manner_ or quality" of the verb _act_. But _act_, in this case, is a neuter or intransitive verb, and _wisely_ expresses the _manner of action_ where there is none! But he must have _acted something_ which was _wise_ like something else. What did he act?
If he produced no _actions_, how can it be known that he _acted_ wisely or unwisely? _Action_ or _acts_ is the direct object of to _act_. Hence the sentence fully stated would stand thus: "He acted _acts_ or _actions_ like wise actions or acts." But stated at length, it appears aukward and clumsy, like old fashioned vehicles. We have modified, improved, cut down, and made eliptical, all of our expressions, as we have previously observed, to suit the fashions and customs of the age in which we live; the same as tailors cut our garments to correspond with the latest fashions.
"The bird sings _sweetly_." The bird sings _songs_, _notes_, or _tunes_, _like sweet notes_, _tunes,_ or _songs_. The comparison here made, is not in reference to the agent or action, but the _object_ of the action; and this explains the whole theory of those _adverbs_, which are said to "qualify manner" of action. We have already seen that no _action_, as such, can exist, or be conceived to exist, separate(-ed) from the _thing_ or _agent_ which _acts_; and such action can only be determined by the _changed_ or altered condition of something which is the _object_ of such action. How then, can any word, in truth, or in thought, be known to _qualify_ the action, as distinct from the object or agent? And if it does not in _fact_, how can we explain words to children, or to our own minds, so as to understand what is not true?
Hence all words of this character are adjectives, describing one thing by its relation or likeness to another, and as such, admit of comparison; as, a likely man, a _very_ likely man, a likelier, and the _likeliest_ man. "He is the _most likely_ pedlar I ever knew." "He is _more liable_ to be deceived." "A _lively_ little fellow." "He is worthless." He is worth less, _less worthy_ of respect and confidence.
"He writes very correctly." He writes his letters and words _like very correct_ letters. But I need not enlarge. You have only to bear in mind the fact, that _ly_ is a contraction of _like_, which is often retained in many words; as G.o.d_like_, christian_like_, etc., and search for a definition accordingly; and you will find no trouble in disposing of a large portion of this adverb family.
It is a curious fact, and should be maturely considered by all who still adhere to the neuter verb theory, that adverbs _qualify neuter_ as well as active verbs, and express the _quality_ or _manner of action_, where there is none! Adverbs express "manner of action" in a neuter verb! When a person starts wrong it is very difficult to go right. The safest course is to return back and start again.
Adverbs have been divided into cla.s.ses, varying from _eleven_ to _seventy-two_, to suit the fancies of those who have only observed the nice shades of form which these words have a.s.sumed. But a bonnet is a bonnet, let its shape, form, or fashion, be what it may. You may put on as many tr.i.m.m.i.n.gs, flowers, bows, and ribbons, as you please; it is a bonnet still; and when we speak of it we will call it a _bonnet_, and talk about its _appendages_. But when it is constructed into something else, then we will give it a new name.
Adjectives, we have said, are _derived_ from either nouns or verbs, and we now contend that the words formerly regarded as adverbs are either adjectives, nouns, or verbs. In defence of this sentiment we will adduce a few words in this place for examples.
=Ago.= "Three years _ago_, we dwelt in the country." This word is a past participle from the verb _ago_, meaning the same as _gone_ or _agone_, and was so used a few centuries _ago_--_agone_, or _gone by_.
"For euer the latter ende of ioye is wo, G.o.d wotte, worldly ioye is soone _ago_."
_Chaucer._
"For if it erst was well, tho was it bet A thousand folde, this nedeth it not require _Ago_ was euery sorowe and euery fere."
_Troylus, boke 3, p. 2._
"Of such examples as I finde Upon this point of tyme _agone_ I thinke for to tellen one."
_Gower_, lib. 5, p. 1.
"Which is no more than has been done By knights for ladies, long _agone_."
_Hudibras._
"Twenty years _agone_."
_Tillotson"s sermon._
"Are all _the go_."
_Knickerbocker._
=Astray.= "They went astray." _Astrayed_, wandered or were scattered, and of course soon became _estranged_ from each other. Farmers all know what it is for cattle to _stray_ from home; and many parents have felt the keen pangs of sorrow when their sons _strayed_ from the paths of virtue. In that condition they are _astray-ed_.
"This prest was drank and goth _astrayede_."
"Achab to the bottle went.
When Benedad for all his shelde Him slough, so that upon the felde His people goth aboute _astraie_."
_Gower._
=Awake.= "He is _awake_." "Samson _awaked_ out of his sleep." "That I may _awake_ him out of sleep." "It is high time to _awake_." "As a man that is _wakened_ out of sleep." The Irish hold _a wake_--they do not sleep the night after the loss of friends.
=Asleep.=
"When that pyte, which longe _on sleep_ doth tary Hath set the fyne of al my heuynesse."