Pa.s.sing from the minor to the major achievements of the time, the earliest, and to my mind the finest, of these is _Isabella or the Pot of Basil_. During the writing of _Endymion_, Keats had intended his next effort to be on the lofty cla.s.sic and symbolic theme of the dethronement of Hyperion and the t.i.tans and the accession of Apollo and the Olympians. But certain reading and talk in the Hunt circle having diverted him from this purpose for a while, and made him take up the idea of a volume of metrical tales from Boccaccio to be written jointly by himself and Reynolds, he chose the tale of the Pot of Basil (the fifth of the fourth day in the _Decameron_), made a sudden beginning at it before he left Hampstead at the end of February, (1819), and finished it at Teignmouth in the course of April. As an appropriate vehicle for an Italian story he took the Italian _ottava rima_ or stanza of eight. Several of the earlier English poets had used this metre: Keats"s main model for it was doubtless Edward Fairfax, who, following other Elizabethan translators, had in his fine version from Ta.s.so, _G.o.dfrey of Bulloigne_, done much more than any of his predecessors towards suppling and perfecting its treatment in English. Since then it had been little employed in our serious poetry, but had lately been brilliantly revived for flippant and satiric uses, after later Italian models, by Hookham Frere and Byron. Keats goes over the heads of these direct to Fairfax, and in certain points at least, in variety of pause and cadence and subtle adaptation of verbal music to emotional effect, by a good deal outdoes even that excellent master.[3] Of course it is of the essence of his treatment to avoid, in the closing couplet of the stanza, the special effect of witty snap and suddenness which fits it so well for the purpose of satire.
Every one knows the story: how a maiden of Messina (Keats chooses to transfer the scene to Florence), living in the house of her merchant brothers, in secret loves one of their clerks: how her brothers, discovering her secret, take out her lover to the forest and there slay and bury him: how his ghost appearing to her in a dream reveals his fate and burial place: how she hastens thither with her nurse, digs till she finds the corpse and having found it carries home the head and sets it in a pot of basil, or sweet marjoram, which she cherishes and waters with her tears until her brothers take it from her, whereupon she pines away and dies.
Boccaccio tells this story with that admirable combination of straightforward conciseness and finished grace which characterizes his mature prose. Keats in his poem romantically amplifies and embroiders it. In his way of doing so we can trace the influence of Chaucer, with whose _Troilus and Criseyde_, that miracle of detailed, long-drawn, yet ever human and rarely tedious narrative, he was by this time familiar.
Keats, while avoiding Chaucer"s prolixity, diversifies his tale with invocations to Love and to the Muses, with apostrophes to the reader and ejaculatory comments on the events, entirely in Chaucer"s manner: only whereas Chaucer relegates the more part of such matter to the "proems"
of his several books, Keats, having plunged into the thick of the story in his first line, finds room for his apostrophes and invocations in the course of the narrative itself. Most critics have taken the view that this is evidence of weak or immature art. To my mind this is not so: the pauses thus introduced are never long enough to hold up the flow and interest of the narrative, while they afford welcome rests to the attention, pleasant changes from a too sustained narrative construction, with consequent beautiful and happy modulations in the movement of the verse.
One of these invocations--invocation and apology together--is to Boccaccio himself, disowning all idea of improving the tale and defining the poet"s attempt as made but to honour him,--
To stead thee as a verse in English tongue, An echo of thee in the north-wind sung.
The definition is exact. The revived spirit of English romantic poetry breathes in every line of the verse, and as in _Endymion_, so here, the southern setting is conceived as though it were English. "So the two brothers and their murder"d man" (the force of the antic.i.p.atory epithet has been celebrated by every critic since Lamb)--
So the two brothers and their murder"d man Rode past fair Florence, to where Arno"s stream Gurgles through straiten"d banks, and still doth fan Itself with dancing bulrush, and the bream Keep head against the freshets.
Another such criticized "digression" tells of the toilers yoked in all quarters of the world to the service of these avaricious merchant brothers. In calling up their sufferings Keats for a moment strikes an unexpected verbal echo from the _Annus Mirabilis_ of Dryden.[4] Dryden, telling of the monopolies of the Dutch in the East India trade, had written,--
For them alone the Heav"ns had kindly heat, In eastern quarries ripening precious dew: For them the Idumean balm did sweat, And in hot Ceilon spicy forests grew.
Keats writes of Isabella"s brothers,--
For them the Ceylon diver held his breath, And went all naked to the hungry shark, For them his ears gush"d blood--
with more in the same strain, very vividly and humanly imagined, but somewhat unevenly written. On the other hand the last of the rests or interruptions in this poem is to my thinking one of its most original and admirable beauties: I mean the invocation beginning "O Melancholy, linger here awhile," repeated with lovely modulations in stanzas lv, lvi, and lxi; the poet deliberately pausing to heighten his effect as it were by an accompaniment of words chosen purely for their pathetic melody and more musical than music itself.
Keats"s way of imagining and telling the story is not less delicate than it is intense. Flaws and false notes there are: phrases, as in _Endymion_, too dulcet and cloying, like that which tells how the lover"s lips grew bold, "And poesied with hers in dewy rhyme:" a flat line where it is most out of place--"And Isabella did not stamp or rave:" a far-fetched rime, as where "love" and "grove" draw in after them the alien idea of Lorenzo not being embalmed in "Indian clove." But such flaws, abundant in _Endymion_, are in _Isabella_ rare and need to be searched for. If we want an example of the staple tissue of the poem we shall rather find it in a stanza like this:--
Parting they seem"d to tread upon the air, Twin roses by the zephyr blown apart Only to meet again more close, and share The inward fragrance of each other"s heart.
She, to her chamber gone, a ditty fair Sang of delicious love and honey"d dart; He with light steps went up a western hill, And bade the sun farewell, and joy"d his fill.
The image of love-happiness in the last couplet is as jocund and uplifting as some radiant symbolic drawing by Blake, and poetry has few things more perfect or easier in their perfection.
In a far more difficult kind, where Keats has to deal with the features of the story that might easily make for the repulsive or the _macabre_, he triumphs not by shirking but by sheer force of pa.s.sionate imagination. "The excellence of every art is its intensity, capable of making all disagreeables evaporate from their being in close relationship with beauty and truth." This dictum of Keats can scarcely be better ill.u.s.trated than by his own handling of the _Isabella_ story.
Take the vision of the murdered man appearing to the girl at night:--
Strange sound it was, when the pale shadow spake; For there was striving, in its piteous tongue, To speak as when on earth it was awake, And Isabella on its music hung: Languor there was in it, and tremulous shake, As in a palsied Druid"s harp unstrung; And through it moan"d a ghostly under-song, Like hoa.r.s.e night-gusts sepulchral briars among.
Its eyes, though wild, were still all dewy bright With love, and kept all phantom fear aloof From the poor girl by magic of their light.
How wonderfully, in these touches, do we feel love prevailing over horror and purging the apparition of all its charnel ghastliness. When we come to the discovery and digging up of the body, Boccaccio turns the difficulty which must inhere in any realistic treatment of the theme by simply saying that it was uncorrupted; as though some kind of miracle had kept it fresh. Keats on the other hand confronts the difficulty and overcomes it. First he acknowledges how the imagination in dwelling on the dead is p.r.o.ne to call up images of corruptibility:--
Who hath not loiter"d in a green church-yard, And let his spirit, like a demon-mole, Work through the clayey soil and gravel hard, To see scull, coffin"d bones, and funeral stole; Pitying each form that hungry Death hath marr"d, And filling it once more with human soul?
Ah! this is holiday to what was felt When Isabella by Lorenzo knelt.
Then he compulsively leads away the mind from such images to think only of the pa.s.sionate absorption with which Isabella flings herself upon her task:--
She gaz"d into the fresh-thrown mould, as though One glance did fully all its secrets tell; Clearly she saw, as other eyes would know Pale limbs at bottom of a crystal well; Upon the murderous spot she seem"d to grow, Like to a native lilly of the dell: Then with her knife, all sudden, she began To dig more fervently than misers can.
Soon she turn"d up a soiled glove, whereon Her silk had play"d in purple phantasies, She kiss"d it with a lip more chill than stone, And put it in her bosom, where it dries And freezes utterly unto the bone Those dainties made to still an infant"s cries: Then "gan she work again; nor stay"d her care, But to throw back at times her veiling hair.
[Ill.u.s.tration: PL. X
PAGE FROM ISABELLA; OR, THE POT OF BASIL
FROM AN AUTOGRAPH BY KEATS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM]
Is any scene in poetry written with more piercing, more unerring, vision? The swift despairing gaze of the girl, antic.i.p.ating with too dire a certainty the realization of her dream: the simile in the third and fourth lines, emphasizing the clearness of that certainty, and at the same time relieving its terror by an image of beauty: the new simile of the lily, again striking the note of beauty, while it intensifies the impression of her rooted fixity of posture and purpose: the sudden solution of that fixity, with the final couplet, into vehement action, as she begins (with a fine implied commentary on the relative strength of pa.s.sions) to dig "more fervently than misers can":--then the first reward of her toil, in the shape of a relic not ghastly, but beautiful both in itself and for the tenderness of which it is a token: her womanly action in kissing it and putting it in her bosom, while all the woman and mother in her is in the same words revealed to us as blighted by the tragedy of her life: then the resumption and continuance of her labours, with gestures once more of vital dramatic truth as well as grace:--to imagine and to write like this is the privilege of the best poets only, and even the best have not often combined such concentrated force and beauty of conception with such a limpid and flowing ease of narrative.[5] Poetry had always come to Keats as naturally as leaves to a tree. So he considered it ought to come, and now that it came of a quality like this, he had fairly earned the right, which his rash youth had too soon arrogated, to look down on the fine artificers of the school of Pope. In comparison with the illuminating power of true imaginative poetry, the closest rhetorical condensations of that school seem thin, their most glittering points and aphorisms mechanical: nay, those who admire them most justly will know better than to think the two kinds of writing comparable.
The final consignment by Isabella of her treasure to its casket is told with the same genius for turning horror into beauty: note the third and fourth lines of the following, with the magically cooling and soothing effect of their open-vowelled sonority;--
Then in a silken scarf,--sweet with the dews Of precious flowers pluck"d in Araby, And divine liquids come with odorous ooze Through the cold serpent-pipe refreshfully,-- She wrapp"d it up; and for its tomb did choose A garden-pot, wherein she laid it by, And cover"d it with mould, and o"er it set Sweet Basil, which her tears kept ever wet.
And she forgot the stars, the moon, and sun, And she forgot the blue above the trees, And she forgot the dells where waters run, And she forgot the chilly autumn breeze; She had no knowledge when the day was done, And the new morn she saw not: but in peace Hung over her sweet Basil evermore, And moisten"d it with tears unto the core.
In pa.s.sages like these of _Isabella_ Keats, for one reader at least, reaches his high-water mark in human feeling, and in felicity both imaginative and executive. The next of his three poetic tales, _The Eve of St Agnes_, does not strike so deep, though it is more nearly faultless and lives as the most complete and enchanting English pure romance-poem of its time. Little or none of the effect is due in this case to elements of magic weirdness or supernatural terror such as counted for so much in the general romantic poetry of the day, and had been of the very essence of achievements so diverse as _The Ancient Mariner_, _Christabel_, _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_, and _Isabella_ itself. The tale hinges on the popular belief that on St Agnes"s Eve (January the 20th) a maiden might win sight of her future husband in a dream by going to bed supperless, silent and without looking behind her, and sleeping on her back with her hands on the pillow above her head.
This belief is mentioned by two writers at least with whom Keats was very familiar: by Ben Jonson in his masque _The Satyr_ and Robert Burton in the _Anatomy of Melancholy_. An eighteenth century book of reference which he may well have known also, Brand"s _Popular Antiquities_, cites the superst.i.tion and adds from a current chapbook a fuller account of it, mentioning other and alternative rites. But one feature of the promised vision which in Keats"s mind was evidently essential, that the lover should regale his mistress after her fasting dream with exquisite viands and music, is not noted in any of these sources: Keats must either have invented it or drawn it from some other authority which criticism has not yet recognized.
It was an obvious and easy idea for Keats to weave into the St Agnes" Eve motive the motive of a love-pa.s.sion between the son and daughter of hostile houses, and to bring the youth to a festival in the halls of his enemies in a manner which reminds one both of Romeo and Juliet and of the young Lochinvar in Scott"s ballad. A remoter source has lately been pointed out as probable for the subsequent incidents of the lover"s concealment by the old nurse in a closet next the maiden"s chamber, his coming in to her while she sleeps, the melting of his real self into her dream of him, her momentary disenchantment and alarm on awakening, her re-a.s.surance and surrender and their ensuing happy union and flight. All these circ.u.mstances, it has been shown, except the immediate flight of the lovers, are closely paralleled in Boccaccio"s early novel _Il Filocolo_, and look as though they must have been derived from it. The _Filocolo_ is an excessively tedious and occasionally coa.r.s.e amplification in prose, made by Boccaccio when his style was still unformed, of the old French metrical romance, long popular throughout Europe, of _Floire et Blancheflor_. The question is, how should Keats have come to be acquainted with it? At this time he knew very little Italian. He was accustomed to read his _Decameron_ in a translation,[6]
and eight months later we find him with difficulty making out Ariosto at the rate of ten or a dozen stanzas a day. A French seventeenth-century version of the _Filocolo_ indeed existed, but none in English. Can it be that Hunt had told Keats the story, or at least those parts of it which would serve him, in the course of talk about Boccaccio? One would not have expected even Hunt"s love of Italian reading to sustain him through the tedium of this early and little known novel by the master: moreover in criticizing _The Eve of St Agnes_ he gives no hint that Keats was indebted to him for any of its incidents. But there the resemblances are, too close to be easily explained as coincidences. The part played by the old nurse Angela in Keats"s poem echoes pretty closely the part played by Glorizia in the _Filocolo_; the drama, dreaming and awake, played between Madeline and Porphyro, repeats, though in a far finer strain, that between Biancofiore and Florio; so that Keats"s narrative reads truly like a magically refined and enriched quintessence distilled from the corresponding chapter in Boccaccio"s tale.[7]
But the question of sources is one for the special student, and its discussion may easily tire the lay reader. Pa.s.sing to the poem and its qualities, we have to note first that, fresh from treading, in his _Hyperion_ attempt, in the path of Milton, Keats in _The Eve of St Agnes_ went back, so far as his manner is derivative at all, to the example of his first master, Spenser. He shows as perfect a command of the Spenserian stanza, with its "sweet-slipping movement," as Spenser himself, and as subtle a sense as his of the leisurely meditative pace imposed upon the metre by the lingering Alexandrine at the close.
Narrating at this pace and in this mood, he is able at any moment with the lightest of touches to launch the imagination to music on a voyage beyond the beyonds, and to charge every line, every word almost, with a richness and fullness of far-away suggestion that yet never clogs the easy harmonious flow of the verse. At the same time he does not, in this new poem, attempt anything like the depth of human pa.s.sion and pathos which he had touched in Isabella, and his personages appeal to us in the manner strictly defined as "romantic," that is to say not so much humanly and in themselves as by the circ.u.mstances, scenery, and atmosphere amidst which they move.
In handling these Keats"s method is the reverse of that by which some writers vainly endeavour to rival in literature the effects of the painter and sculptor. He never writes for the eye merely, but vivifies everything he touches, telling even of dead and senseless things in terms of life, movement, and feeling. From the opening stanza, which makes us feel the chill of the season to our bones,--telling us first of its effect on the wild and tame creatures of wood and field, and next how the frozen breath of the old beadsman in the chapel aisle "seem"d taking flight for heaven, without a death,"--from thence to the close, where the lovers disappear into the night, the poetry throbs in every line with the life of imagination and beauty. The monuments in the aisle are brought before us, not by any effort of description, but solely through our sympathy with the shivering fancy of the beadsman:--
Knights, ladies, praying in dumb orat"ries, He pa.s.seth by; and his weak spirit fails To think how they may ache in icy hoods and mails.
Even into the sculptured heads of the corbels supporting the banquet-hall roof the poet strikes life:--
The carved angels, ever eager-eyed, Stared, where upon their heads the cornice rests, With wings blown back, and hands put cross-wise on their b.r.e.a.s.t.s.[8]
The painted panes in the chamber window, instead of trying to pick out their beauties in detail, he calls--
Innumerable of stains and splendid dyes As are the tiger-moth"s deep-damask"d wings,--
a gorgeous phrase which leaves the widest range to the colour-imagination of the reader, giving it at the same time a sufficient clue by the simile drawn from a particular specimen of nature"s blazonry.[9] In the last line of the same stanza--
A shielded scutcheon blush"d with blood of queens and kings,
--the word "blush" makes the colour seem to come and go, while the mind is at the same time sent travelling from the maiden"s chamber on thoughts of her lineage and ancestral fame. Observation, I believe, shows that moonlight has not the power to transmit the separate hues of painted gla.s.s as Keats in this celebrated pa.s.sage represents it, but fuses them into a kind of neutral or indiscriminate opaline shimmer. Let us be grateful for the error, if error it is, which has led him to heighten, by these saintly splendours of colour, the sentiment of a scene wherein a voluptuous glow is so exquisitely attempered with chivalrous chast.i.ty and awe. If any reader wishes to realise how the genius of Elizabethan romantic poetry re-awoke in Keats, and how much enriched and enhanced, after two hundred years, let him compare all this scene of Madeline"s unrobing with the pa.s.sage from Brown"s _Britannia"s Pastorals_ which was probably in his memory when he wrote it (see above, p. 98).
When Madeline unclasps her jewels, a weaker poet would have dwelt on their l.u.s.tre or other visible qualities: Keats puts those aside, and speaks straight to our spirits in an epithet breathing with the very life of the wearer,--"Her warmed jewels." When Porphyro spreads the feast of dainties beside his sleeping mistress, we are made to feel how those ideal and rare sweets of sense surround and minister to her, not only with their own natural richness, but with the a.s.sociations and the homage of all far countries whence they have been gathered--
From silken Samarcand to cedar"d Lebanon.
Concerning this sumptuous pa.s.sage of the spread feast of fruits, not unequally rivalling the famous one in Milton,[10] Leigh Hunt has some interesting things to say in his _Autobiography_[11]:--
I remember Keats reading to me, with great relish and particularity, conscious of what he had set forth, the lines describing the supper and ending with the words,