here the term "statesman" occurs without any voucher; it appears in the inference but not in the evidence, and therefore violates the maxim of all formal proof, "not to go beyond the evidence." It is true that if any one argued--
All authors are vain; Cicero wrote on philosophy: ? Cicero is vain--
this could not be called a bad argument or a material fallacy; but it would be a needless departure from the form of expression in which the connection between the evidence and the inference is most easily seen.
Still, a mere adherence to the same form of words in the expression of terms is not enough: we must also attend to their meaning. For if the same word be used ambiguously (as "author" now for "father" and anon for "man of letters"), it becomes as to its meaning two terms; so that we have four in all. Then, if the ambiguous term be the Middle, no connection is shown between the other two; if either of the others be ambiguous, something seems to be inferred which has never been really given in evidence.
The above two Canons are, indeed, involved in the definition of a categorical syllogism, which may be thus stated: A Categorical Syllogism is a form of proof or reasoning (way of giving reasons) in which one categorical proposition is established by comparing two others that contain together only three terms, or that have one and only one term in common.
The proposition established, derived, or inferred, is called the Conclusion: the evidentiary propositions by which it is proved are called the Premises.
The term common to the premises, by means of which the other terms are compared, is called the Middle Term; the subject of the conclusion is called the Minor Term; the predicate of the conclusion, the Major Term.
The premise in which the minor term occurs is called the Minor Premise; that in which the major term occurs is called the Major Premise. And a Syllogism is usually written thus:
Major Premise--All authors (Middle) are vain (Major);
Minor Premise--Cicero (Minor) is an author (Middle):
Conclusion--? Cicero (Minor) is vain (Major).
Here we have three propositions with three terms, each term occurring twice. The minor and major terms are so called, because, when the conclusion is an universal affirmative (which only occurs in Barbara; see chap. x. -- 6), its subject and predicate are respectively the less and the greater in extent or denotation; and the premises are called after the peculiar terms they contain: the expressions "major premise"
and "minor premise" have nothing to do with the order in which the premises are presented; though it is usual to place the major premise first.
(3) No term must be distributed in the conclusion unless it is distributed in the premises.
It is usual to give this as one of the General Canons of the Syllogism; but we have seen (chap. vi. -- 6) that it is of wider application.
Indeed, "not to go beyond the evidence" belongs to the definition of formal proof. A breech of this rule in a syllogism is the fallacy of Illicit Process of the Minor, or of the Major, according to which term has been unwarrantably distributed. The following parasyllogism illicitly distributes both terms of the conclusion:
All poets are pathetic; Some orators are not poets: ? No orators are pathetic.
(4) The Middle Term must be distributed at least once in the premises (in order to prove a conclusion in the given terms).
For the use of mediate evidence is to show the relation of terms that cannot be directly compared; this is only possible if the middle term furnishes the ground of comparison; and this (in Logic) requires that the whole denotation of the middle should be either included or excluded by one of the other terms; since if we only know that the other terms are related to _some_ of the middle, their respective relations may not be with the same part of it.
It is true that in what has been called the "numerically definite syllogism," an inference may be drawn, though our canon seems to be violated. Thus:
60 sheep in 100 are horned; 60 sheep in 100 are blackfaced: ? at least 20 blackfaced sheep in 100 are horned.
But such an argument, though it may be correct Arithmetic, is not Logic at all; and when such numerical evidence is obtainable the comparatively indefinite arguments of Logic are needless. Another apparent exception is the following:
Most men are 5 feet high; Most men are semi-rational: ? Some semi-rational things are 5 feet high.
Here the Middle Term (men) is distributed in neither premise, yet the indisputable conclusion is a logical proposition. The premises, however, are really arithmetical; for "most" means "more than half," or more than 50 per cent.
Still, another apparent exception is entirely logical. Suppose we are given, the premises--_All P is M_, and _All S is M_--the middle term is undistributed. But take the obverse of the contrapositive of both premises:
All m is p; All m is s: ? Some s is p.
Here we have a conclusion legitimately obtained; but it is not in the terms originally given.
For Mediate Inference depending on truly logical premises, then, it is necessary that one premise should distribute the middle term; and the reason of this may be ill.u.s.trated even by the above supposed numerical exceptions. For in them the premises are such that, though neither of the two premises by itself distributes the Middle, yet they always overlap upon it. If each premise dealt with exactly half the Middle, thus barely distributing it between them, there would be no logical proposition inferrible. We require that the middle term, as used in one premise, should necessarily overlap the same term as used in the other, so as to furnish common ground for comparing the other terms. Hence I have defined the middle term as "that term common to both premises by means of which the other terms are compared."
(5) One at least of the premises must be affirmative; or, from two negative premises nothing can be inferred (in the given terms).
The fourth Canon required that the middle term should be given distributed, or in its whole extent, at least once, in order to afford sure ground of comparison for the others. But that such comparison may be effected, something more is requisite; the relation of the other terms to the Middle must be of a certain character. One at least of them must be, as to its extent or denotation, partially or wholly identified with the Middle; so that to that extent it may be known to bear to the other term, whatever relation we are told that so much of the Middle bears to that other term. Now, ident.i.ty of denotation can only be predicated in an affirmative proposition: one premise, then, must be affirmative.
If both premises are negative, we only know that both the other terms are partly or wholly excluded from the Middle, or are not identical with it in denotation: where they lie, then, in relation to one another we have no means of knowing. Similarly, in the mediate comparison of quant.i.ties, if we are told that A and C are both of them unequal to B, we can infer nothing as to the relation of C to A. Hence the premises--
No electors are sober; No electors are independent--
however suggestive, do not formally justify us in inferring any connection between sobriety and independence. Formally to draw a conclusion, we must have affirmative grounds, such as in this case we may obtain by obverting both premises:
All electors are not-sober; All electors are not-independent: ? Some who are not-independent are not-sober.
But this conclusion is not in the given terms.
(6) (a) If one premise be negative, the conclusion must be negative: and (b) to prove a negative conclusion, one premise must be negative.
(a) For we have seen that one premise must be affirmative, and that thus one term must be partly (at least) identified with the Middle. If, then, the other premise, being negative, predicates the exclusion of the remaining term from the Middle, this remaining term must be excluded from the first term, so far as we know the first to be identical with the Middle: and this exclusion will be expressed by a negative conclusion. The a.n.a.logy of the mediate comparison of quant.i.ties may here again be noticed: if A is equal to B, and B is unequal to C, A is unequal to C.
(b) If both premises be affirmative, the relations to the Middle of both the other terms are more or less inclusive, and therefore furnish no ground for an exclusive inference. This also follows from the function of the middle term.
For the more convenient application of these canons to the testing of syllogisms, it is usual to derive from them three Corollaries:
(i) Two particular premises yield no conclusion.
For if both premises be affirmative, _all_ their terms are undistributed, the subjects by predesignation, the predicates by position; and therefore the middle term must be undistributed, and there can be no conclusion.
If one premise be negative, its predicate is distributed by position: the other terms remaining undistributed. But, by Canon 6, the conclusion (if any be possible) must be negative; and therefore its predicate, the major term, will be distributed. In the premises, therefore, both the middle and the major terms should be distributed, which is impossible: e.g.,
Some M is not P; Some S is M: ? Some S is not P.
Here, indeed, the major term is legitimately distributed (though the negative premise might have been the minor); but M, the middle term, is distributed in neither premise, and therefore there can be no conclusion.
Still, an exception may be made by admitting a bi-designate conclusion:
Some P is M; Some S is not M: ? Some S is not some P.
(ii) If one premise be particular, so is the conclusion.
For, again, if both premises be affirmative, they only distribute one term, the subject of the universal premise, and this must be the middle term. The minor term, therefore, is undistributed, and the conclusion must be particular.
If one premise be negative, the two premises together can distribute only two terms, the subject of the universal and the predicate of the negative (which may be the same premise). One of these terms must be the middle; the other (since the conclusion is negative) must be the major.
The minor term, therefore, is undistributed, and the conclusion must be particular.
(iii) From a particular major and a negative minor premise nothing can be inferred.
For the minor premise being negative, the major premise must be affirmative (5th Canon); and therefore, being particular, distributes the major term neither in its subject nor in its predicate. But since the conclusion must be negative (6th Canon), a distributed major term is demanded, e.g.,