No wise man (P) fears death (M); Balbus (S) fears death (M): ? Balbus (S) is not a wise man (P).
In this example, instead of P being predicated of M, M is predicated of P, and yet S is given as included not in P, but in M. The divergence of such a syllogism from the _Dictum_ may, however, be easily shown to be superficial by writing, instead of _No wise man fears death_, the simple, converse, _No man who fears death is wise_.
Again:
Some dogs (M) are friendly to man (P); All dogs (M) are carnivores (S): ? Some carnivores (S) are friendly to man (P).
Here P is predicated of M undistributed; and instead of S being included in M, M is included in S: so that the divergence from the type of syllogism to which the _Dictum_ directly applies is still greater than in the former case. But if we transpose the premises, taking first
All dogs (M) are carnivores (P),
then P is predicated of M distributed; and, simply converting the other premise, we get--
Some things friendly to man (S) are dogs (M):
whence it follows that--
Some things friendly to man (S) are carnivores (P);
and this is the simple converse of the original conclusion.
Once more:
No pigs (P) are philosophers (M); Some philosophers (M) are hedonists (S): ? Some hedonists (S) are not pigs (P).
In this case, instead of P being predicated of M distributed, M is predicated of P distributed; and instead of S (or part of it) being included in M, we are told that some M is included in S. Still there is no real difficulty. Simply convert both the premises, and we have:
No philosophers (M) are pigs (P); Some hedonists (S) are philosophers (M).
Whence the same conclusion follows; and the whole syllogism plainly conforms directly to the _Dictum_.
Such departures as these from the normal syllogistic form are said to const.i.tute differences of Figure (see -- 2); and the processes by which they are shown to be unessential differences are called Reduction (see -- 6).
-- 2. Figure is determined by the position of the Middle Term in the premises; of which position there are four possible variations. The middle term may be subject of the major premise, and predicate of the minor, as in the first example above; and this position, being directly conformable to the requirements of the _Dictum_, is called the First Figure. Or the middle term may be predicate of both premises, as in the second of the above examples; and this is called the Second Figure. Or the middle term may be subject of both premises, as in the third of the above examples; and this is called the Third Figure. Or, finally, the middle term may be predicate of the major premise, and subject of the minor, as in the fourth example given above; and this is the Fourth Figure.
It may facilitate the recollection of this most important point if we schematise the figures thus:
I. II. III. IV.
M---P P---M M---P P---M | | / | | / | | / S---M S---M M---S M---S
The horizontal lines represent the premises, and at the angles formed with them by the slanting or by the perpendicular lines the middle term occurs. The schema of Figure IV. resembles Z, the last letter of the alphabet: this helps one to remember it in contrast with Figure I., which is thereby also remembered. Figures II. and III. seem to stand back to back.
-- 3. The Moods of each Figure are the modifications of it which arise from different combinations of propositions according to quant.i.ty and quality. In Figure I., for example, four Moods are recognised: A.A.A., E.A.E., A.I.I., E.I.O.
A. All M is P; A. All S is M: A. ? All S is P.
E. No M is P; A. All S is M: E. ? No S is P.
A. All M is P; I. Some S is M: I. ? Some S is P.
E. No M is P; I. Some S is M: O. ? Some S is not P.
Now, remembering that there are four Figures, and four kinds of propositions (A. I. E. O.), each of which propositions may be major premise, minor premise, or conclusion of a syllogism, it appears that in each Figure there may be 64 Moods, and therefore 256 in all. On examining these 256 Moods, however, we find that only 24 of them are valid (i.e., of such a character that the conclusion strictly follows from the premises), whilst 5 of these 24 are needless, because their conclusions are "weaker" or less extensive than the premises warrant; that is to say, they are particular when they might be universal. Thus, in Figure I., besides the above 4 Moods, A.A.I. and E.A.O. are valid in the sense of being conclusive; but they are superfluous, because included in A.A.A. and E.A.E. Omitting, then, these 5 needless Moods, which are called "Subalterns" because their conclusions are subaltern (chap. vii. -- 2) to those of other Moods, there remain 19 Moods that are valid and generally recognised.
-- 4. How these 19 Moods are determined must be our next inquiry. There are several ways more or less ingenious and interesting; but all depend on the application, directly or indirectly, of the Six Canons, which were shown in the last chapter to be the conditions of Mediate Inference.
(1) One way is to begin by finding what Moods of Figure I. conform to the _Dictum_. Now, the _Dictum_ requires that, in the major premise, P be predicated of a term distributed, from which it follows that no Mood can be valid whose major premise is particular, as in I.A.I. or O.A.O.
Again, the _Dictum_ requires that the minor premise be affirmative ("with which term another is identified"); so that no Mood can be valid whose minor premise is negative, as in A.E.E. or A.O.O. By such considerations we find that in Figure I., out of 64 Moods possible, only six are valid, namely, those above-mentioned in -- 3, including the two subalterns. The second step of this method is to test the Moods of the Second, Third, and Fourth Figures, by trying whether they can be reduced to one or other of the four Moods of the First (as briefly ill.u.s.trated in -- 1, and to be further explained in -- 6).
(2) Another way is to take the above six General or Common Canons, and to deduce from them Special Canons for testing each Figure: an interesting method, which, on account of its length, will be treated of separately in the next section.
(3) Direct application of the Common Canons is, perhaps, the simplest plan. First write out the 64 Moods that are possible without regard to Figure, and then cross out those which violate any of the Canons or Corollaries, thus:
AAA, [AAE] (6th Can. b). AAI. [AAO] (6th Can. b).
[AEA] (6th Can. a) AEE, [AEI] (6th Can. a) AEO, [AIA] (Cor. ii.) [AIE] (6th Can. b) AII, [AIO] (6th Can. b) [AOA] (6th Can. a) [AOE] (Cor. ii.) [AOI] (6th Can. a) AOO.
Whoever has the patience to go through the remaining 48 Moods will discover that of the whole 64 only 11 are valid, namely:
A.A.A., A.A.I., A.E.E., A.E.O., A.I.I., A.O.O., E.A.E., E.A.O., E.I.O., I.A.I., O.A.O.
These 11 Moods have next to be examined in each Figure, and if valid in every Figure there will still be 44 moods in all. We find, however, that in the First Figure, A.E.E., A.E.O., A.O.O. involve illicit process of the major term (3rd Can.); I.A.I., O.A.O. involve undistributed Middle (4th Can.); and A.A.I., E.A.O. are subalterns. In the Second Figure all the affirmative Moods, A.A.A., A.A.I., A.I.I., I.A.I., involve undistributed Middle; O.A.O. gives illicit process of the major term; and A.E.O., E.A.O. are subalterns. In the Third Figure, A.A.A., E.A.E., involve illicit process of the minor term (3rd Can.); A.E.E., A.E.O., A.O.O., illicit process of the major term. In the Fourth Figure, A.A.A.
and E.A.E. involve illicit process of the minor term; A.I.I., A.O.O., undistributed Middle; O.A.O. involves illicit process of the major term; and A.E.O. is subaltern.
Those moods of each Figure which, when tried by these tests, are not rejected, are valid, namely:
Fig. I.--A.A.A., E.A.E., A.I.I., E.I.O. (A.A.I., E.A.O., Subaltern);
Fig. II.--E.A.E., A.E.E., E.I.O., A.O.O. (E.A.O., A.E.O., Subaltern);
Fig. III.--A.A.I., I.A.I., A.I.I., E.A.O., O.A.O., E.I.O.;
Fig. IV.--A.A.I., A.E.E., I.A.I., E.A.O., E.I.O. (A.E.O., Subaltern).
Thus, including subaltern Moods, there are six valid in each Figure. In Fig. III. alone there is no subaltern Mood, because in that Figure there can be no universal conclusion.
-- 5. Special Canons of the several Figures, deduced from the Common Canons, enable us to arrive at the same result by a somewhat different course. They are not, perhaps, necessary to the Science, but afford a very useful means of enabling one to thoroughly appreciate the character of formal syllogistic reasoning. Accordingly, the proof of each rule will be indicated, and its elaboration left to the reader. There is no difficulty, if one bears in mind that Figure is determined by the position of the middle term.
Fig. I., Rule (a): _The minor premise must be affirmative_.
For, if not, in negative Moods there will be illicit process of the major term. Applying this rule to the eleven possible Moods given in -- 4, as remaining after application of the Common Canons, it eliminates A.E.E., A.E.O., A.O.O.
(b) _The major premise must be universal_.
For, if not, the minor premise being affirmative, the middle term will be undistributed. This rule eliminates I.A.I., O.A.O.; leaving six Moods, including two subalterns.
Fig. II. (a) _One premise must be negative._