75A. What are the logical grounds of the Law of Error?
76. Explain the nature and use of Cla.s.sification, the means to, and tests of, its successful performance. [S]
77. What is Definition and what is its use? Mention various difficulties that occur in the process, and show how they are to be met. [S]
78. Propose rules for a good Division and a good Definition, and exemplify the breach of them. [S]
79. Examine the validity of the idea of Real Kinds. [O]
80. What kind of words are indefinable, and why? When do we define by negation and by example? [S]
81. Distinguish between the province and aims of cla.s.sification and (logical) division. Ill.u.s.trate. [S]
82. What is an _infima species_ or _species specialissima_? Compare the use of the terms _genus_ and _species_ in Logic with that which is common in speaking of animals or plants. [S]
83. How far does the formation of Definitions and Cla.s.sifications const.i.tute the end of Science? [S]
84. Examine the methodological relations between Definition, Cla.s.sification and Nomenclature. [S]
85. Give instances of "Differentia," "Property," "Inseparable Accident"; and examine, with reference to your instances, how far it is possible to distinguish them. [S]
V. MISCELLANEOUS.
86. "People can reason without the help of Logic." Why is this not a sufficient objection to the study? In your answer show distinctly why Logic should be studied. [S]
87. What is the meaning of the a.s.sertion that Logic is concerned with the form, and not with the matter, of thought? [S]
88. "Neither by deductive nor inductive reasoning can we add a t.i.ttle to our implicit knowledge." (Jevons.) Explain and criticise. [S]
89. What is the logical foundation of the indirect method or _reductio ad absurdum_? Is it applicable to non-mathematical subjects? [S]
90. On what grounds do we believe in the reality of an historical event?
[S]
91. "Facts are familiar theories." Explain and discuss this. [O]
92. Wherein lies the difficulty of proving a negative? [O]
93. Can any limits be a.s.signed to the possible unification of the sciences? [O]
94. Are the results of inductive inference necessarily certain? [O]
95. The method of deductive science is hypothetical. Explain and discuss. [O]
96. "The uniformity of Nature can never be more than a working hypothesis." Explain and criticise.
97. "Without speculation there is no good and original observation."
Why? [O]
98. Can the provinces of induction and deduction be kept separate? [O]
99. How far is the relation of logical dependence identical with that of causation? [O]
99A. Discuss the position that the forms of Logic are meaningless apart from their application.
100. State in syllogistic form (mood and figure) the following arguments:--
(a) As polygamy is in many countries legal, we may infer the variability of the moral standard.
(b) If gold is wealth, to export it diminishes the national resources.
(c) If all good people are happy, unhappiness is an indication of vice.
(d) One may be sure of the benefits of inuring young children to cold, from the strength exhibited by all men and women thus treated in infancy.
(e) Where there is no law, there is no injustice.
(f) "Dissimulation is but a faint kind of policy or wisdom; for it asketh a strong wit and a strong heart to know when to tell the truth, and to do it; therefore it is the weaker sort of politicians that are the greatest dissemblers." (Bacon.)
(g) Money being a barren product, it is contrary to nature to make it reproduce itself. Usury, therefore, is unnatural, and, being unnatural, is unjustifiable.
(h) The study of mathematics is essential to a complete course of education, because it induces a habit of close and regular reasoning. [S]
101. Explain and ill.u.s.trate the following terms:--Subalternans, _Vera Causa_, Plurality of Causes, Law of Nature, Empirical Law, _Summum Genus_, Predicament, _Arbor Porphyriana_, Axiom, Universe of discourse (_suppositio_), Antinomy, Dilemma, Realism, Dichotomy, etc.
102. Is there any distinction and, if so, what, between a complete Description and an Explanation? [C]
103. On what principles have fallacies been cla.s.sified? To what extent do you think a satisfactory cla.s.sification of Fallacies possible? [C]
104. Examine how far conceptions of Persistence and of Invariable Concomitance of Properties are involved in the methodological application of the conception of Cause.
104A. Inquire whether the two following propositions can be reconciled with one another: (a) The same conjunction of antecedents is invariably followed by the same consequent; (b) We never find the same concurrence of phenomena a second time. [C]
105. Using the term Logic in a wide sense, so as to include Methodology, inquire how far a Logic of Observation is possible, and show in what it will consist. [C]
106. What is Proof?
Explain and discuss the following dicta:--(a) _Qui nimium probat, nihil probat_: (b) A bad proof is worse than no proof; (c) The exception proves the rule; (d) Negatives cannot be proved. [C]
107. Examine how far the rules of immediate and syllogistic inference are modified by differences of interpretation of the categorical proposition in respect of the existence of the subject. [S]
108. "An effect is but the sum of all the partial causes, the concurrence of which const.i.tutes its existence." "The cause of an event is its invariable and unconditional antecedent." Explain and compare these two theories of causation. Does either alone exhaust the scientific conception of cause? [S]
109. Under what logical conditions are statistical inferences authorised, and what is the nature of their conclusions? [S]
110. Distinguish between Psychology, Metaphysics, and Logic; and discuss briefly their mutual relations. [S]
111. All processes of inference in which the ultimate premises are particular cases are equally induction.