Their settlements were upon the sh.o.r.es of rivers and lakes, and their weapons and other relics are found only in the narrow open grounds which they had burned over and cultivated, or in the margin of the woods around their villages.
The rank forests of the tropics are as unproductive of human aliment as the less luxuriant woods of the temperate zone. In Strain"s unfortunate expedition across the great American isthmus, where the journey lay princ.i.p.ally through thick woods, several of the party died of starvation, and for many days the survivors were forced to subsist on the scantiest supplies of unnutritious vegetables perhaps never before employed for food by man. See the interesting account of that expedition in _Harper"s Magazine_ for March, April, and May, 1855.
Clave, as well as many earlier writers, supposes that primitive man derived his nutriment from the spontaneous productions of the wood. "It is to the forests," says he, "that man was first indebted for the means of subsistence. Exposed alone, without defence, to the rigor of the seasons, as well as to the attacks of animals stronger and swifter than himself, he found in them his first shelter, drew from them his first weapons. In the first period of humanity, they provided for all his wants: they furnished him wood for warmth, fruits for food, garments to cover his nakedness, arms for his defence."--_etudes sur l"economie Forestiere_, p. 13.
But the history of savage life, as far as it is known to us, presents man in that condition as inhabiting only the borders of the forest and the open grounds that skirt the waters and the woods, and as finding only there the aliments which make up his daily bread.
[118] The origin of the great natural meadows, or prairies as they are called, of the valley of the Mississippi, is obscure. There is, of course, no historical evidence on the subject, and I believe that remains of forest vegetation are seldom or never found beneath the surface, even in the _sloughs_, where the perpetual moisture would preserve such remains indefinitely. The want of trees upon them has been ascribed to the occasional long-continued droughts of summer, and the excessive humidity of the soil in winter; but it is, in very many instances, certain that, by whatever means the growth of forests upon them was first prevented or destroyed, the trees have been since kept out of them only by the annual burning of the gra.s.s, by grazing animals, or by cultivation. The groves and belts of trees which are found upon the prairies, though their seedlings are occasionally killed by drought, or by excess of moisture, extend themselves rapidly over them when the seeds and shoots are protected against fire, cattle, and the plough. The prairies, though of vast extent, must be considered as a local, and, so far as our present knowledge extends, abnormal exception to the law which clothes all suitable surfaces with forest; for there are many parts of the United States--Ohio, for example--where the physical conditions appear to be nearly identical with those of the States lying farther west, but where there were comparatively few natural meadows.
The prairies were the proper feeding grounds of the bison, and the vast number of those animals is connected, as cause or consequence, with the existence of those vast pastures. The bison, indeed, could not convert the forest into a pasture, but he would do much to prevent the pasture from becoming a forest.
There is positive evidence that some of the American tribes possessed large herds of domesticated bisons. See HUMBOLDT, _Ansichten der Natur_, i, pp. 71-73. What authorizes us to affirm that this was simply the wild bison reclaimed, and why may we not, with equal probability, believe that the migratory prairie buffalo is the progeny of the domestic animal run wild?
There are, both on the prairies, as in Wisconsin, and in deep forests, as in Ohio, extensive remains of a primitive people, who must have been more numerous and more advanced in art than the present Indian tribes.
There can be no doubt that the woods where such earthworks are found in Ohio were cleared by them, and that the vicinity of these fortresses or temples was inhabited by a large population. Nothing forbids the supposition that the prairies were cleared by the same or a similar people, and that the growth of trees upon them has been prevented by fires and grazing, while the restoration of the woods in Ohio may be due to the abandonment of that region by its original inhabitants. The climatic conditions unfavorable to the spontaneous growth of trees on the prairies may be an effect of too extensive clearings, rather than a cause of the want of woods. See _Appendix_, No. 22.
[119] In many parts of the North American States, the first white settlers found extensive tracts of thin woods, of a very park-like character, called "oak openings," from the predominance of different species of that tree upon them. These were the semi-artificial pasture grounds of the Indians, brought into that state, and so kept, by partial clearing, and by the annual burning of the gra.s.s. The object of this operation was to attract the deer to the fresh herbage which sprang up after the fire. The oaks bore the annual scorching, at least for a certain time; but if it had been indefinitely continued, they would very probably have been destroyed at last. The soil would have then been much in the prairie condition, and would have needed nothing but grazing for a long succession of years to make the resemblance perfect. That the annual fires alone occasioned the peculiar character of the oak openings, is proved by the fact, that as soon as the Indians had left the country, young trees of many species sprang up and grew luxuriantly upon them. See a very interesting account of the oak openings in DWIGHT"s _Travels_, iv, pp. 58-63.
[120] The practice of burning over woodland, at once to clear and manure the ground, is called in Swedish _svedjande_, a participial noun from the verb _att svedja_, to burn over. Though used in Sweden as a preparation for crops of rye or other grain, it is employed in Lapland more frequently to secure an abundant growth of pasturage, which follows in two or three years after the fire; and it is sometimes resorted to as a mode of driving the Laplanders and their reindeer from the vicinity of the Swedish backwoodsman"s gra.s.s grounds and haystacks, to which they are dangerous neighbors. The forest, indeed, rapidly recovers itself, but it is a generation or more before the reindeer moss grows again.
When the forest consists of pine, _tall_, the ground, instead of being rendered fertile by this process, becomes hopelessly barren, and for a long time afterward produces nothing but weeds and briers.--LaeSTADIUS, _Om Uppodlingar i Lappmarken_, p. 15. See also SCHUBERT, _Resa i Sverge_, ii, p. 375.
In some parts of France this practice is so general that Clave says: "In the department of Ardennes it (_le sartage_) is the basis of agriculture. The northern part of the department, comprising the arrondiss.e.m.e.nts of Rocroi and Mezieres, is covered by steep wooded mountains with an argillaceous, compact, moist and cold soil; it is furrowed by three valleys, or rather three deep ravines, at the bottom of which roll the waters of the Meuse, the Semoy, and the Sormonne, and villages show themselves wherever the walls of the valleys retreat sufficiently from the rivers to give room to establish them. Deprived of arable soil, since the nature of the ground permits neither regular clearing nor cultivation, the peasant of the Ardennes, by means of burning, obtains from the forest a subsistence which, without this resource, would fail him. After the removal of the disposable wood, he spreads over the soil the branches, twigs, briars, and heath, sets fire to them in the dry weather of July and August, and sows in September a crop of rye, which he covers by a light ploughing. Thus prepared, the ground yields from seventeen to twenty bushels an acre, besides a ton and a half or two tons of straw of the best quality for the manufacture of straw hats."--CLAVe, _etudes sur l"economie Forestiere_, p. 21.
Clave does not expressly condemn the _sartage_, which indeed seems the only practicable method of obtaining crops from the soil he describes, but, as we shall see hereafter, it is regarded by most writers as a highly pernicious practice.
[121] The remarkable mounds and other earthworks constructed in the valley of the Ohio and elsewhere in the territory of the United States, by a people apparently more advanced in culture than the modern Indian, were overgrown with a dense clothing of forest when first discovered by the whites. But though the ground where they were erected must have been occupied by a large population for a considerable length of time, and therefore entirely cleared, the trees which grew upon the ancient fortresses and the adjacent lands were not distinguishable in species, or even in dimensions and character of growth, from the neighboring forests, where the soil seemed never to have been disturbed. This apparent exception to the law of change of crop in natural forest growth was ingeniously explained by General Harrison"s suggestion, that the lapse of time since the era of the mound builders was so great as to have embraced several successive generations of trees, and occasioned, by their rotation, a return to the original vegetation.
The successive changes in the spontaneous growth of the forest, as proved by the character of the wood found in bogs, is not unfrequently such as to suggest the theory of a considerable change of climate during the human period. But the laws which govern the germination and growth of forest trees must be further studied, and the primitive local conditions of the sites where ancient woods lie buried must be better ascertained, before this theory can be admitted upon the evidence in question. In fact, the order of succession--for a rotation or alternation is not yet proved--may move in opposite directions in different countries with the same climate and at the same time. Thus in Denmark and in Holland the spike-leaved firs have given place to the broad-leaved beech, while in Northern Germany the process has been reversed, and evergreens have supplanted the oaks and birches of deciduous foliage. The princ.i.p.al determining cause seems to be the influence of light upon the germination of the seeds and the growth of the young tree. In a forest of firs, for instance, the distribution of the light and shade, to the influence of which seeds and shoots are exposed, is by no means the same as in a wood of beeches or of oaks, and hence the growth of different species will be stimulated in the two forests. See BERG, _Das Verdrangen der Laubwalder im Nordlichen Deutschland_, 1844. HEYER, _Das Verhalten der Waldbaume gegen Licht und Schatten_, 1852. STARING, _De Bodem van Nederland_, 1856, i, pp.
120-200. VAUPELL, _Om Bogens Indvandring i de Danske Skove_, 1857.
KNORR, _Studien uber die Buchen-Wirthschaft_, 1863.
[122] There are, in Northern Italy and in Switzerland, joint-stock companies which insure against damage by hail, as well as by fire and lightning. Between the years 1854 and 1861, a single one of these companies, La Riunione Adriatica, paid, for damage by hail in Piedmont, Venetian Lombardy, and the Duchy of Parma, above 6,500,000 francs, or nearly $200,000 per year.
[123] The _paragrandine_, or, as it is called in French, the _paragrele_, is a species of conductor by which it has been hoped to protect the harvests in countries particularly exposed to damage by hail. It was at first proposed to employ for this purpose poles supporting sheaves of straw connected with the ground by the same material; but the experiment was afterward tried in Lombardy on a large scale, with more perfect electrical conductors, consisting of poles secured to the top of tall trees and provided with a pointed wire entering the ground and reaching above the top of the pole. It was at first thought that this apparatus, erected at numerous points over an extent of several miles, was of some service as a protection against hail, but this opinion was soon disputed, and does not appear to be supported by well-ascertained facts. The question of a repet.i.tion of the experiment over a wide area has been again agitated within a very few years in Lombardy; but the doubts expressed by very able physicists as to its efficacy, and as to the point whether hail is an electrical phenomenon, have discouraged its advocates from attempting it.
[124] _Cenni sulla Importanza e Coltura dei Boschi_, p. 6.
[125] _Memoria sui Boschi, etc._, p. 44.
[126] _Travels in Italy_, chap. iii.
[127] _Le Alpi che cingono l"Italia_, i, p. 377.
[128] "Long before the appearance of man, * * * they [the forests] had robbed the atmosphere of the enormous quant.i.ty of carbonic acid it contained, and thereby transformed it into respirable air. Trees heaped upon trees had already filled up the ponds and marshes, and buried with them in the bowels of the earth--to restore it to us after thousands of ages in the form of bituminous coal and of anthracite--the carbon which was destined to become, by this wonderful condensation, a precious store of future wealth."--CLAVe, _etudes sur l"economie Forestiere_, p. 13.
This opinion of the modification of the atmosphere by vegetation is contested.
[129] Schacht ascribes to the forest a specific, if not a measurable, influence upon the const.i.tution of the atmosphere. "Plants imbibe from the air carbonic acid and other gaseous or volatile products exhaled by animals or developed by the natural phenomena of decomposition. On the other hand, the vegetable pours into the atmosphere oxygen, which is taken up by animals and appropriated by them. The tree, by means of its leaves and its young herbaceous twigs, presents a considerable surface for absorption and evaporation; it abstracts the carbon of carbonic acid, and solidifies it in wood, fecula, and a mult.i.tude of other compounds. The result is that a forest withdraws from the air, by its great absorbent surface, much more gas than meadows or cultivated fields, and exhales proportionally a considerably greater quant.i.ty of oxygen. The influence of the forests on the chemical composition of the atmosphere is, in a word, of the highest importance."--_Les Arbres_, p.
111. See _Appendix_, No. 23.
[130] Composition, texture and color of soil are important elements to be considered in estimating the effects of the removal of the forest upon its thermoscopic action. "Experience has proved," says Becquerel, "that when the soil is bared, it becomes more or less heated [by the rays of the sun] according to the nature and the color of the particles which compose it, and according to its humidity, and that, in the refrigeration resulting from radiation, we must take into the account the conducting power of those particles also. Other things being equal, silicious and calcareous sands, compared in equal volumes with different argillaceous earths, with calcareous powder or dust, with humus, with arable and with garden earth, are the soils which least conduct heat. It is for this reason that sandy ground, in summer, maintains a high temperature even during the night. We may hence conclude that when a sandy soil is stripped of wood, the local temperature will be raised.
After the sands follow successively argillaceous, arable, and garden ground, then humus, which occupies the lowest rank. If we represent the power of calcareous sand to retain heat by 100, we have, according to Schubler,
For [silicious?] sand 95.6 " arable calcareous soil 74.8 " argillaceous earth 68.4 " garden earth 64.8 " humus 49.0
"The retentive power of humus, then, is but half as great as that of calcareous sand. We will add that the power of retaining heat is proportional to the density. It has also a relation to the magnitude of the particles. It is for this reason that ground covered with silicious pebbles cools more slowly than silicious sand, and that pebbly soils are best suited to the cultivation of the vine, because they advance the ripening of the grape more rapidly than chalky and clayey earths, which cool quickly. Hence we see that in examining the calorific effects of clearing forests, it is important to take into account the properties of the soil laid bare."--BECQUEREL, _Des Climats et des Sols boises_, p.
137.
[131] "The Washington elm at Cambridge--a tree of no extraordinary size--was some years ago estimated to produce a crop of seven millions of leaves, exposing a surface of two hundred thousand square feet, or about five acres of foliage."--GRAY, _First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology_, as quoted by COULTAS, _What may be learned from a Tree_, p. 34.
[132] See, on this particular point, and on the general influence of the forest on temperature, HUMBOLDT, _Ansichten der Natur_, i, 158.
[133] The radiating and refrigerating power of objects by no means depends on their form alone. Melloni cut sheets of metal into the shape of leaves and gra.s.ses, and found that they produced little cooling effect, and were not moistened under atmospheric conditions which determined a plentiful deposit of dew on the leaves of vegetables.
[134] BECQUEREL, _Des Climats, etc., Discours Prelim._ vi.
[135] _Travels_, i, p. 61.
[136] _Le Alpi che cingono l"Italia_, pp. 370, 371.
[137] BERGSoE, _Reventlovs Virksomhed_, ii, p. 125.
[138] BECQUEREL, _Des Climats, etc._, p. 179.
[139] Ibid., p. 116.
[140] The following well-attested instance of a local change of climate is probably to be referred to the influence of the forest as a shelter against cold winds. To supply the extraordinary demand for Italian iron occasioned by the exclusion of English iron in the time of Napoleon I, the furnaces of the valleys of Bergamo were stimulated to great activity. "The ordinary production of charcoal not sufficing to feed the furnaces and the forges, the woods were felled, the copses cut before their time, and the whole economy of the forest was deranged. At Piazzatorre there was such a devastation of the woods, and consequently such an increased severity of climate, that maize no longer ripened.
An a.s.sociation, formed for the purpose, effected the restoration of the forest, and maize flourishes again in the fields of Piazzatorre."--Report by G. ROSA, in _Il Politecnico_, Dicembre, 1861, p. 614.
Similar ameliorations have been produced by plantations in Belgium. In an interesting series of articles by Baude, ent.i.tled "Les Cotes de la Manche," in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, I find this statement: "A spectator placed on the famous bell tower of the cathedral of Antwerp, saw, not long since, on the opposite side of the Schelde only a vast desert plain; now he sees a forest, the limits of which are confounded with the horizon. Let him enter within its shade. The supposed forest is but a system of regular rows of trees, the oldest of which is not forty years of age. These plantations have ameliorated the climate which had doomed to sterility the soil where they are planted. While the tempest is violently agitating their tops, the air a little below is still, and sands far more barren than the plateau of La Hague have been transformed, under their protection, into fertile fields."--_Revue des Deux Mondes_, January, 1859, p. 277.
[141] _Cenni sulla Importanza e Coltura dei Boschi_, p. 31.
[142] _La Provence au point de vue des Torrents et des Inondations_, p.
19.
[143] _Ueber die Entwaldung der Gebirge_, p. 28.
[144] BECQUEREL, _Des Climats, etc._, p. 9.
[145] SALVAGNOLI, _Rapporto sul Bonificamento delle Maremme Toscane_, pp. xli, 124.
[146] _Il Politecnico, Milano, Aprile e Maggio_, 1863, p. 35.
[147] SALVAGNOLI, _Memorie sulle Maremme Toscane_, pp. 213, 214.
[148] Except in the seething marshes of the tropics, where vegetable decay is extremely rapid, the uniformity of temperature and of atmospheric humidity renders all forests eminently healthful. See HOHENSTEIN"s observations on this subject, _Der Wald_, p. 41.
There is no question that open squares and parks conduce to the salubrity of cities, and many observers are of opinion that the trees and other vegetables with which such grounds are planted contribute essentially to their beneficial influence. See an article in _Aus der Natur_, xxii, p. 813.