CHAPTER X
EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA
As we have seen, there were many efforts to grow European grapes in America during the first two centuries in the settlement of the country. The various attempts, some involving individuals, others corporations and in early days even colonies, form about the most instructive and dramatic episodes in the history of American agriculture. All endeavors, it will be remembered, were failures, so dismally and pathetically complete that we are wont to think of the two hundred years from the first settlements in America to the introduction of the Isabella, a native grape, as time wasted in futile culture of a foreign fruit. The early efforts were far from wasted, however, for out of the tribulations of two centuries of grape-growing came the domestication of our native grapes, one of the most remarkable achievements of agriculture.
The advent of Isabella and Catawba wholly turned the thoughts of vineyardists from Old World to New World grapes. So completely, indeed, were viticulturists won by the thousand and more native grapes, that for the century which followed no one has planted Old World grapes east of the Rockies, while vineyards of native species may be found North and South from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Meanwhile, much new knowledge has come to agriculture, old fallacies have received many hard knocks and chains of tradition in which the culture of plants was bound, have been broken. In no field of agriculture have workers received greater aid from science than in viticulture. Particularly is this true of the diseases of the vine.
The reports of the old experimenters were much the same, "a sickness takes hold of the vines and they die." What the sickness was and whether there were preventatives or remedies, no one knew a hundred years ago. But in the last half century we have learned much about the ills of grapes and now know preventatives or remedies for most of them. We know also that the early vine-growers failed, in part at least, because they followed empirical European practices. Is it not possible that with the new knowledge we can now grow European grapes in eastern America? The New York Agricultural Experiment Station has put this question to test, with results indicating that European grapes may now be grown successfully in eastern America. The following is an account of the work with this fruit at the New York Station.
EUROPEAN GRAPES AT THE NEW YORK EXPERIMENT STATION[17]
In the spring of 1911, the Station obtained cuttings of 101 varieties of European grapes from the United States Department of Agriculture and the University of California. The cuttings obtained were grafted on the roots of a heterogeneous collection of seedlings, five years set, representing a half dozen species of Vitis. These stocks had little to recommend them except that all were vigorous, well established and all were more immune to phylloxera than the Old World varieties. From four to six grafts of each of the hundred varieties were made and a stand of 380 vines resulted, the percentage of loss being exceedingly small. The success in grafting was probably due to the method used, the value of which had been proved in previous work on the Station grounds. The method of grafting and details of care follow:
_Details of care._
In grafting, the earth was removed from the plants to a depth of two or three inches. The vines were sawed squarely off below the surface of the ground. The stock was then split for a cleft graft. Two cions, made as described on page 46, were inserted in each cleft and tied in place with waxed string. Wax was not used as it does not stick in grafting grapes, because of the bleeding of the stock. After setting the cion, the earth was replaced and enough more of it used to cover stock and cion to prevent evaporation. This method of grafting is available to those who have old vineyards. It is so simple that the veriest tyro can thus graft grapes. Were young plants or cuttings used as stocks, some method of bench grafting would, of course, be resorted to.
The cultivation and spraying were precisely that given native grapes.
There has been no coddling of vines. The fungous diseases which helped to destroy the vineyards and vexed the souls of the old experimenters were kept in check by two sprayings with bordeaux mixture; the first application was made just after the fruit set, the second when the grapes were two-thirds grown. Some years a third spraying with a tobacco concoction was used to keep thrips in check. Phylloxera was present in the vineyard but none of the varieties seemed to suffer from this pest. The stocks used were not those best suited either to the vines grafted on them or to resist phylloxera. Unquestionably some of the standard sorts used in France and California from _Vitis rupestris_ or _Vitis vulpina_, or hybrids of these species, would give better results. From theoretical consideration, it would seem that the _Vitis vulpina_ stocks should be best suited to the needs of eastern America.
It was thought by the old experimenters that European grapes failed in New York because of unfavorable climatic conditions. It was said that the winters were too cold and the summers too hot and dry for this grape. During the years the Station vineyard of Viniferas has been in existence, there have been stresses of all kinds of weather to which the variable climate of New York is subject. Two winters have been exceedingly cold, killing peach and pear trees; one summer gave the hottest weather and hottest day in twenty-five years; the vines have withstood two severe summer droughts and three cold, wet summers.
These test seasons have proved that European grapes will stand the climate of New York as well as the native varieties except in the matter of cold; they must have winter protection.
To growers of American grapes, the extra work of winter protection seems to be an insuperable obstacle. The experience of several seasons in New York shows that winter protection is a cheap and simple matter.
Two methods have been used; vines have been covered with earth and others have been wrapped with straw. The earth covering is cheaper and more efficient. The vines are pruned and placed full length on the ground and covered with a few inches of earth. The cost of winter protection will run from two to three cents a vine. Since European vines are much more productive than those of American grapes, the added cost of winter protection is more than offset by the greater yield of grapes. Trellising, also, is simpler and less expensive for the European grapes, helping further to offset the cost of winter protection.
_Pruning._
It is apparent at once that European grapes must have special treatment in pruning if they are to be laid on the ground annually.
Several modifications of European and California practices can be employed in the East to bring the plants in condition for winter laying-down. All methods of pruning must have this in common; new wood must be brought up from the base of the plant every year to permit bending the plant. This can be done by leaving a replacing spur at the base of the trunk. If two-eye cions are used when the plants are grafted and both buds grow, the shoot from the upper can be used to form the main trunk, while that from the lower bud will supply the replacing spur. Each year all but one of the canes coming from this spur are removed and the remaining one is cut back to one or two buds until the main trunk begins to be too stiff to bend down readily, then one cane from the spur is left for a new trunk and another is pruned for a new renewal spur.
The main trunk is carried up only to the lower wire of the trellis. At the winter pruning, two one-year canes are selected to be tied along this wire, one on each side, and the two renewal spurs chosen for tying up and new renewal spurs left. For the best production, different varieties require different lengths of fruit canes, but the work at Geneva has not progressed far enough so that recommendations can be made for particular varieties. It has been found best, however, to prune weak vines heavily and vigorous ones lightly. Under normal conditions, from four to eight buds are left on each cane, depending on the vigor of the vine. With some of the older seedlings used for stocks in 1911 which were so large that two cions were used, and in many of those where the roots seemed to have sufficient vigor to support the larger top, two trunks were formed, one from each graft.
By spreading these into a V and making the inner arms shorter, very satisfactory results were secured.
The type of growth in Vinifera is different from that of native grapes. The young shoots which spring from the one-year canes, instead of trailing to the ground or running out along the trellis wires, grow erect. Advantage must be taken of this in the pruning system adopted in the East. The canes and the renewal spurs as described above are tied along the lower wire; then the young shoots which come from these grow upward to the second wire. When the shoots are four to six inches above this wire, they are pinched off just above the wire and any which have not already fastened themselves are tied to prevent the wind breaking them off. At the same time, if any of the axial buds on the shoots have begun to form secondary shoots, they are rubbed off, beginning with the node next above the upper cl.u.s.ter and going down to the old cane. This gives the cl.u.s.ter more room and better light. Soon after the first heading-back, the upper buds of the young shoot start lateral growth. The secondary branches usually grow upright and when they are several inches high they are topped with a sickle. This heading-back results in stockier and more mature canes for the following year, and if properly done adds to the fruitfulness of the vine and the fruit matures better.
_General considerations._
The grower of European grapes grafted on American vines may be prepared to be surprised at the growth the vines make. At the end of the first season, the grafts attain the magnitude of full-sized vines; the second season they begin to fruit more or less abundantly, and the third year they produce approximately the same number of bunches as a Concord or Niagara vine; and, as the bunches of most varieties are larger than those of the American grapes, the yield, therefore, is greater. The European varieties, also, may be set more closely than the American sorts, since they are seldom such rampant growers.
It is too early to reason from this short experiment that we are to grow varieties of European grapes commonly in the East, but the behavior of the vines under discussion seems to indicate that we may do so. At the New York Station, the European varieties are as vigorous and thrifty as American vines and quite as easily managed. Why may we not grow these grapes if we protect them from phylloxera, fungi and cold? In Europe, there are varieties of grapes for nearly every soil and condition in the southern half of the continent. In eastern Europe and western Asia, the vines must be protected just as they must be protected here. It seems almost certain that from the many sorts selected to meet the various conditions of Europe, we shall be able to find kinds to meet the diverse soils and climates of this continent.
And here we have one of the chief reasons for wishing to grow these grapes that American grape-growing may not be so localized as at present. Probably we shall find that European grapes can be grown under a greater diversity of conditions than native varieties.
The culture of European grapes in the East gives this region essentially a new fruit. If any considerable degree of success attends their culture, wine-making in eastern America will be revolutionized, for the European grapes are far superior to the native sorts for this purpose. Varieties of these grapes have a higher sugar- and solid-content than do those of the American species and for this reason, as a rule, keep longer. We may thus expect that through these grapes the season for this fruit will be extended. The European varieties are better flavored, possessing a more delicate and a richer vinous flavor, a more agreeable aroma, and are lacking in the acidity and the obnoxious foxy taste of many American grapes. Many consumers of fruit will like them better and the demand for grapes thus will be increased.
The advent of the European grape in the vineyards of eastern America ought to greatly increase the production of hybrids between this species and the American species of grapes. As we have seen, there are many such hybrids, but curiously enough scarcely more than a half dozen varieties of European grapes have been used in crossing. Most of these have been greenhouse grapes and not those that could be expected to give best results for vineyard culture. As we come to know the varieties best adapted to American conditions, we ought to be able to select European parents to better advantage than we have done in the past and by using them produce better hybrid sorts.
_Varieties._
From the eighty-five varieties of European grapes now fruiting on the grounds of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the following are named as worth trying in the East for table grapes: Actoni, Bakator, Cha.s.selas Golden, Cha.s.selas Rose, Feher Szagos, Gray Pinot, Lignan Blanc, Malvasia, Muscat Hamburg, Palomino and Rosaki. These and other European grapes are described in Chapter XVIII; Cha.s.selas Golden and Malvasia are ill.u.s.trated in Plate V.
[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE XV.--Eclipse (2/3).]
CHAPTER XI
GRAPES UNDER GLa.s.s
Grape-growing under gla.s.s is on the decline in America. Forty or fifty years ago the industry was a considerable one, grapes being rather commonly grown near all large cities for the market, and nearly every large estate possessing a range of gla.s.s had a grapery. But grapes are better and more cheaply grown in Europe than in America, and the advent of quick transportation permits English, French and Belgian grape-growers to send their wares to American markets more cheaply than they can be grown at home. For the present, the world war has stopped the importation of luxuries from Europe, and American gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes under gla.s.s profitable; they may expect also to be able to hold the markets for many years to come because of the destruction of Belgian houses and the shortage of labor in Europe resulting from the war.
Amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes under gla.s.s wane, since the hot-house grape is the consummation of the gardener"s skill. Certainly the forcing of no other fruit yields such generous rewards. Grapes grown under gla.s.s are handsomer in appearance and better in quality than those grown out-of-doors. The cl.u.s.ters often attain enormous size, a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not uncommon. The impression prevails that to grow grapes under gla.s.s, one must have expensive houses; this is not necessary, and "hot-house grapes" is a misnomer, the fruit really being grown in cold or relatively cool houses which need not be expensive. Grapes are grown under gla.s.s with greater ease and certainty than is imagined by those who form the opinion from buying the fruit at high prices in delicatessen stores. A grapery need not be an expensive luxury, and the culture of grapes under gla.s.s can be recommended to persons of moderate means who are looking for a horticultural hobby.
THE GRAPERY
Almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses can be adapted to growing grapes. Firms constructing greenhouses usually have had experience in building graperies, and, as a rule, it will pay to have these professional builders put up the house. If the actual work is not done by a builder, it is possible to purchase plans and estimates, from which, if sufficiently detailed, local builders can work. On small places there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most suitable, being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing winds. These lean-tos should face the south and may be built against the stable, garage or other building; or better, a brick or stone wall to the north may be erected. It is possible to build a small grapery as a lean-to out of hot-house sash.
In commercial establishments and for large estates, where the grapery must be more or less ornamental, a span-roof house is rather better adapted to the grapery than a lean-to, especially if the house is not to be used for the production of grapes early in the season. On account of the exposure of the span-roof house on all sides, however, rather more skill must be exercised in growing grapes in them than in the better protected lean-to grapery. Whatever the house, it must be so constructed as to furnish an abundance of light, a requisite in which much is gained by having large-size gla.s.ses for the glazing. The gla.s.s must be of the best quality, otherwise the foliage and fruit may be blistered by the sun"s rays being focused through defective spots.
Light, heat, moisture and good ventilation are all required in the grapery. Brick or stone are preferable to woodwork, as heat and moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive to wood foundations.
If wood is used, only the most durable kinds should enter into the construction of the house. The under structure of masonry or of wood should be low, not higher than 18 inches or 2 feet before the superstructure of gla.s.s begins. The grapery must be well ventilated.
There must be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small ones just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls themselves. The ventilation should be such that the house can be kept free from draughts or sudden changes of temperature, as the grape under gla.s.s is a sensitive plant, and subject to mildew. Plenty of air, therefore, is an absolute necessity to the grapes, especially during the ripening of the fruit. The lower ventilators in graperies are seldom much used until the grapes begin to color, at which time the new growth, foliage and fruit are hardened, but from this time on upper and lower ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are always generously aired.
Grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of artificial heat and formerly these cold graperies were very popular; but in the modern houses for growing this fruit, artificial heat is now considered a necessity, even though the heating apparatus may seldom be in use. For a finely finished product, a little heat to warm the room and dry the atmosphere may be absolutely necessary at a critical time, this often saving a house of grapes. Of heating apparatus, little need be said.
Standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam or hot water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost every style and condition of house. Since the grapery seldom requires high heat, hot water is rather to be preferred to steam, although there is no objection to steam, especially if the grapery is a part of a large range of gla.s.s.
_The border._
The border in which the vines are to be planted is the most important part of the grapery. All subsequent efforts fail if the border lacks in two imperatives, good drainage and a soil that is rich but not too rich. The grapery must be built on well-drained land or elevated above the ground to permit the construction of a properly drained border.
"Border," in the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just inside the house, is now a misnomer, though the name undoubtedly comes from the fact that narrow beds inside the house were at one time used in which to plant vines. The border in a modern grapery now occupies all of the ground surface inside the house and may extend several feet outside the house.
Much skill is required in building the border. A good formula is: Six parts loamy turf from an old pasture; one part of well-rotted cow manure; one part of old plaster and one part of ground bone. These ingredients are composted and if the work is well done will meet very well the soil and food requirements of the grape. This formula can be varied according to soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with the variety planted. Unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect, the border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer of old brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage is perfect. At least two feet, better three feet, of the border compost should be placed above the drainage material. In a border made as described, the grape finds ample root-run, but not too much, as in a surprisingly short time roots are found throughout all parts of this extensive border.
The care of the border is a matter of considerable moment and varies, of course, with those in charge. The usual procedure is to spade the outside border, if the border extends outside, before winter, after which it is covered with a coating of well-rotted manure, without any particular attempt having been made to keep out the frost, as a certain amount of freezing outside of the house is held to be beneficial. The inside border must be spaded just before the vines are started in the spring, having been covered previously with well-rotted manure. The time at which the vines are to be started in growth is determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes is wanted. For an early crop, the vines must be started early in February; for a late crop, a month or even two months later suffices. So started, the first crop of grapes comes on in June or July, the later ones following in August or September.
It is related that Napoleon I, to secure saltpetre for making gunpowder, composted "filth, dead animals, urine and offal with alternate layers of turf and lime mortar," and a.s.serted that "a nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border" and that "when the materials have been turned over and over again for a year or two they are in exactly the proper state to yield either gunpowder or grapes."
Napoleon"s niter-bed is not now considered a good model for a grape-border, as the fruit produced in so rich a soil, though abundant, is coa.r.s.e and poorly flavored, and the vines complete their own destruction by over-bearing. Gardeners hold that a grape-border may be too rich in plant-food, especially too rich in nitrogen.
VARIETIES
Out of the 2000 or more Vinifera grapes, probably not more than a score are grown under gla.s.s, and of these but a half dozen are commonly grown. Black varieties have the preference for indoors, especially if grown for the market, where they bring the highest prices. They are also as a rule more easily handled indoors than the white sorts. However, as we shall see, one or two white kinds are indispensable in a house of any considerable size.