Senior, first year 11 to 12 " "
Senior, second year 12 to 13 " "
Thus a child is "regular" in instruction when he is found in the cla.s.s named at the age indicated.
The normal age for the infant cla.s.s is from six to seven years. The children of that age are entered in the table in the appropriate column. Now consider the extreme ages between six and seven which obey this condition. On the one hand would be a child exactly six years of age on admission. Such a child is exactly normal as regards age. He is behind by 0 years, 0 months, 0 days. At the other extreme would be a child exactly seven--or, rather, one day less than seven--on admission. Such a child would be behind by exactly one year.
Consequently, the column headed six to seven years for the infant cla.s.s contains children behind by 0 day as a minimum, and one year as a maximum. The average will therefore be behind by six months (compared to the ideal). a.n.a.logous reasoning would show that the children of the infant cla.s.s entered in the column headed five to six years would, on the average, be six months in advance of their age.
Similarly, those shown in the column headed seven to eight years would be on the average one and a half years behind.
=Interpretation of the Tables.=--The next point is to sort out the defectives from these tables. Nothing is easier if we follow the rules already given. Turning to our tables, we would consider as suspects the children entered in the fourth and following columns for the infant cla.s.s; in column five and following for the elementary course, first year; in column six and following for the elementary course, second year; in column eight and following for the intermediate course, first year; in column nine and following for the intermediate course, second year. If the reader will calculate the r.e.t.a.r.dation implied in the columns which we designate, he will see that this r.e.t.a.r.dation is equal to at least two years under the age of nine, and equal to at least three years above the age of nine.
DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN THE SCHOOL FOR BOYS, RUE GRANGE-AUX-BELLES.
--------+--------+-----------------------+----------------------------Number of Pupils who, onOctober 1, were--+------+------+------+------+RegularCla.s.sesAgeCourses (Parallel5 to 66 to 77 to 88 to 9(Years).Cla.s.ses = A and B).Years.Years.Years.Years.--------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+------+Supplementary--------Senior A--------VI.11 to 12" B--------V.10 " 11Intermediate (2nd year)--------IV. A.9 " 10" (1st year)------9IV. B.9 " 10" (1st year)----14III.8 " 9Elementary (2nd year)----614II.7 " 8" (1st year)--6238I.6 " 7Preparatory34212----------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+------+Totals3484235--------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+------+ --------+--------+-----------------------+----------------------------Number of Pupils who, onOctober 1, were--+------+------+------+------+Regular9 to10 to11 to12 toCla.s.sesAgeCourses (Parallel10111213(Years).Cla.s.ses = A and B).Years.Years.Years.Years.--------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+------+Supplementary--------Senior A--------VI.11 to 12" B--61216V.10 " 11Intermediate (2nd year)113175IV. A.9 " 10" (1st year)1496--IV. B.9 " 10" (1st year)15107--III.8 " 9Elementary (2nd year)112--1II.7 " 8" (1st year)6----2I.6 " 7Preparatory--83----------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+------+Totals47484524--------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+------+ --------+--------+-----------------------+----------------------------Number of Pupils who, onOctober 1, were--+------+------+------+Regular13 to14 to15 toCla.s.sesAgeCourses (Parallel141516Totals.(Years).Cla.s.ses = A and B).Years.Years.Years.--------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+-------+Supplementary--------Senior A--------VI.11 to 12" B41--39V.10 " 11Intermediate (2nd year)----238IV. A.9 " 10" (1st year)------38IV. B.9 " 10" (1st year)--2--39III.8 " 9Elementary (2nd year)--1--35II.7 " 8" (1st year)2----47I.6 " 7Preparatory------68--------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+-------+Totals642304--------+--------+-----------------------+------+------+------+-------+
The number of children suspected of mental deficiency obtained by this method varies extremely from one school to another, independently of the mistakes which are made by the head-masters with lamentable frequency. We have found the proportions varying from 0.2 to 10 per cent., with all the intermediates represented. The average of suspects for ten girls" schools, with an average of 300 pupils, was 3.7 per cent.; for eight boys" schools in the same district, and strictly comparable to the preceding, it was 5.35 per cent. It must be clearly understood that these figures are provisional. They do not correspond to real defectives, but to children _suspected_ of mental deficiency; and, moreover, they do not include the unstable, unless they are also defective.
Having made these deductions, one writes to the head-masters, or perhaps summons them to a meeting, in order to ascertain the names of these children and various other particulars.
These particulars will refer to three main points:
1. Give the full names and date of birth of the backward children (by two or three years, according to the distinctions given above), and indicate also whether the r.e.t.a.r.dation is explained by irregular attendance, by want of application, or defective intelligence.
2. Indicate the children who, although they do not belong to the preceding category, yet appear to be distinctly abnormal.
3. Indicate also the children who are ill-balanced and rebellious to all discipline in the opinion of several teachers who have had them in their cla.s.ses.
We have already received replies which seem to us instructive, and even carry us beyond the study of the abnormal, as they may throw some light on the psychology of those who are commonly called "dunces." As a general rule, the children cla.s.sed as r.e.t.a.r.ded are the victims of disease, const.i.tutional debility, or malnutrition. We find included in our lists some who are the children of nomadic parents; some who have been kept from school; some who have attended a religious school, where they learned little but sewing and writing; some who have changed their school too often; some also who are foreigners, and understand little French; and, lastly, some who have been kept back in their studies by unrecognised myopia. Such causes are extrinsic to the child. The personal causes of r.e.t.a.r.dation are defective intelligence, sluggishness of mind, insubordination, an eccentric and excitable nature, a constant want of attention, and, lastly, laziness.
The complete and methodical study of the doc.u.ments relating to 223 children with a r.e.t.a.r.dation of three years has taught us a number of interesting facts. It is very rare for the cause of the r.e.t.a.r.dation to be single. Usually, several causes were at work simultaneously.
Feebleness of mind complicated by illness is noted in 20 per cent. of the cases. Insufficient school attendance (due to other causes than illness), in conjunction with feebleness of mind, is met with in 25 per cent. of cases. If, without taking account of those a.s.sociations of causes, one enumerates simply the frequency with which each single cause of r.e.t.a.r.dation is mentioned, one obtains the following percentages:
Feebleness of mind 50 per cent.
Insufficient attendance (without illness) 33 "
Illness 25 "
Lack of application, laziness 7 "
If we admit, as a hypothesis, that the frequency of each of those four princ.i.p.al causes indicates its importance, we shall conclude that laziness very rarely explains a r.e.t.a.r.dation so great as three years, and that the most important factor is undoubtedly feebleness of mind.
We should have expected the teachers to give much more frequently the ba.n.a.l reason of lack of application. They have not done so, and these results confirm in a quite unexpected manner the convention according to which every r.e.t.a.r.dation of three years should make one suspect feebleness of mind.
It would be interesting to know whether any children really defective in intelligence escape the revelation furnished by our tables. We have put this question in writing to the heads of the schools, and they have notified fifteen children, or 6 per cent., who seem to them to be clearly defective, although without a r.e.t.a.r.dation of three years. On testing the statement, we found that mistakes had been made, and the sole residue of defectives who had escaped our census consisted of three subjects who wanted only a month or a few weeks to have shown clearly a r.e.t.a.r.dation of three years. They were therefore on the border, and such exceptional cases are always to be found when one fixes an exact limit. There is no need to worry about them.
=Hostile Head-Masters and Teachers.=--It is important to state that the procedure for selection which we have outlined can be carried out without the concurrence of the head-masters. As a matter of fact, one has to be prepared for everything, even the hostility of the school staff. It may be that a head-master who has a defective in his school refrains from mentioning the fact. It may be that he is indifferent, or does not believe in special education, or simply does not choose to put himself about; or, again, he may be timid and afraid of trouble, or may shrink from the recriminations of parents, behind whom he sees the hostile shadow of some town councillor or journalist. Lastly, he may be an ignoramus who, even at this time of day, imagines that a child cannot be a defective unless he has incontinence of urine or a sugar-loaf head. We have already come across several fellows of this kind. The sceptical type is most common. We recollect a head-master who, in response to our inquiry, replied with irritating calmness: "I have five hundred pupils in my school. I am sure that not one of them is a defective. You are of a different opinion. Well, my school is open. Come and see for yourself." And he added with a sceptical smile: "The school doctor and myself will be very curious to learn how you manage the inquiry." As a matter of fact, the proportion of defectives in his school was just the usual one--about 2 per cent.
At the time when the Government Commission was holding its inquiry as to the number of defectives, we found in the statistical tables which we had in our hands that whole towns, even as important as Fontainebleau, had replied "None," yet we knew by personal inquiry that that reply was wrong.
The systematic reticence of the head-master is therefore already in evidence, and will certainly turn up again even when the law is in full operation. Doubtless wiser counsels will prevail in the long run, and opposition will become less. But it will never disappear entirely.
However, one will not be affected by it in picking out the backward children, but the children who are abnormal, though not backward, and the ill-balanced children, will perhaps escape, unless the inspector visits the school, and, knowing the disposition of the head-master, takes the precaution of questioning the teachers as to the children in their cla.s.s who give them the most trouble in regard to discipline. As a rule the masters have an interest in pointing out these pupils in the hope that they will be removed.
B THE RoLE OF THE PRIMARY INSPECTOR: TO ACT AS REFEREE.
In the pedagogical examination the inspector should exercise a measure of control. It is he who sets the teachers to fill up the schedules, who interprets the returns, and estimates their value.
Work is better done when it is subject to inspection. The head-masters will take more care in the selection of the defectives if they know that all their cases will be examined by a person whose competence is equal to their own, and whose position is higher. The inspector, who is generally well acquainted with his personnel, will see at a glance what he ought to think of the returns which are furnished to him. He knows that one master is too severe, and another too indulgent. He has to restrain the overzealous, to stimulate the indifferent, and encourage the despondent. When it is a question of estimating a child"s want of balance, it is necessary to know the character of the judge. Some good teachers fail to gain the necessary ascendancy over one of their pupils, either because they are indulgent where strictness is necessary, or because by excessive brusqueness and severity they alienate natures which require to be humoured. The inspector will succeed in taking all these things into account. He will interpret correctly the facts which are laid before him, because it is his business, his _metier_.
=Significance of Irregular Attendance.=--The inspector will begin, let us suppose, by examining the returns given concerning the backward children. From the notes sent to him he will be able to distinguish between the children whose backwardness is due to irregular attendance and those who may justly be suspected of mental deficiency or want of balance. He will thus make a first selection.
Here are some examples of the notes referred to:
_Renne G----_, age thirteen years, is in the intermediate course, second year; she is therefore three years behind for her age. The explanation given by the teacher is as follows: "Had contagious ophthalmia; not admitted to school till ten.
Intelligence middling." If the return is correct, one is not surprised that the child has not made more progress.
_Suzanne M----_, age twelve and a half years (two years behind); always very delicate and frequently absent; of average intelligence.
_Yvonne D----_, age ten and a half years (two years behind); lived a long time on a boat without going to school; intelligence average; very industrious.
_Eugenie V----_, age eleven and a half years (three years behind); educated at a convent school until October last; intelligence little developed; slow of comprehension; writes and sews pretty well; spelling poor.
_Suzanne B----_, age eleven and a half years (two years behind); an intelligent and industrious child, who has travelled much with her parents, and afterwards stayed in a little boarding-house. At school since October; she has made great progress.
_Anna E----_, age eleven and a half years (two years behind); born in German Switzerland, brought up in England, and has been in Paris only a year and a half.
_Germaine G----_, age ten years (three years behind); very short-sighted. It was only last year that it was noticed that this defect of vision was keeping the child from learning to read. Since spectacles were provided she has made rapid progress.
_Marguerite L----_, age ten years (two years behind). This child has some affection of the eyes; she has been operated on several times.
Without pretending to give a final opinion on the above cases, one may believe that the r.e.t.a.r.dation is due to the ailment or to irregular attendance. If it were necessary, one might make further inquiries at the schools previously attended by the child, or find out at the present school the exact number of days of absence.
In other cases it seems clear that it is the intelligence of the child that is at fault. For example--
_Jeanne L----_, age ten years (two years behind); attends school regularly; stupid and lazy.
_Hortense G----_ (two years behind); irritable temper; very backward in arithmetic and spelling; intelligence mediocre.
_Marie R----_ (two years behind); intelligence very mediocre; inattentive; progress very slow.
_Blanche B----_ (three years behind); intelligence much below the average; has some slight apt.i.tude for sewing and arithmetic, but very backward otherwise; incapable of giving a reply indicative of good sense and reflection.
_Jeanne B----_ (two years behind); intelligence decidedly mediocre; none of her answers particularly sensible.
When the inspector has read these notes and formed an opinion on the children, and obtained as far as necessary additional information about their school attendance,[7] etc., he will make his first choice.
He will decide which children are to be examined, and will have them brought to him.
Be it understood, then, that the child must now be presented, and that it is by questioning him that the inspector will form an opinion of his mental level. This examination is important. The inspector must observe the child, induce him to talk, watch the play of his features.
In this way he receives a living impression which rarely deceives an experienced eye. He will even chat with him a little about something--for example, the occupation of his parents.... After these preliminaries, the examination proper begins. It includes the estimation of the degree of instruction and the degree of intelligence.
Tests of Instruction.