(b) Sufficient reason is not a new principle, since it is admitted by all moralists for the case of double effect (see above, 102 Sqq.); its application to the solution of doubts of conscience is not an innovation, since the cases of doubt and of double effect are a.n.a.logous.
(c) Compensationism is not intended as a system to be applied by those who have not sufficient theological training, but as a guide for moralists, directors and confessors. That it is not difficult, is clear from the fact that it is only an application of the commonly accepted principle of double effect, and that Probabilists themselves recommend it and make very general use of it, as if they instinctively recognized its necessity.
739. Practical Conclusions.--From the foregoing discussions one may deduce three rules for the guidance of those who are not expert theologians:
(a) If your state of conscience is cert.i.tude (i.e., if you are firmly convinced which way your duty lies), entertain no fears or scrupulous doubts, and, having done your part to understand your obligations, you need not hesitate to follow your conscience.
(b) If your state of conscience is imprudent a.s.sent (i.e., the acceptance of what you recognize as unlikely), or if it is suspended a.s.sent (i.e., a wavering between opposites), do not act blindly, but seek truth and decision.
(c) If your state of conscience is opinion (i.e., the acceptance of what you regard as likely though uncertain), consult your confessor or another competent theologian; if there is no time for this, decide for any course that seems true and prudent (see on perplexed conscience, 611 sqq.).
740. Regarding the respective merits and the use of the rival systems of conscience, the following conclusions may be drawn:
(a) If there is question of what is to be counselled, one should be a "Meliorist," for the better and more perfect is more advisable than what is merely good or lawful. All Christians should be directed to aspire after holiness, but, if one is unwilling to follow a counsel, it should not be imposed on him as a precept. Naturally, of those in higher station higher things are required.
(b) As between doubt and cert.i.tude regarding obligations, one must be a "Cert.i.tudinist," that is, one must resolve doubts or slight probabilities into direct or indirect cert.i.tude (as was explained above in 641 sqq.). If a doubt remains, one must for that case be a Tutiorist, that is, one must follow the safer side (as explained in 661).
(c) As between the safer and the less safe, one must be a Tutiorist, when some law requires this, as is the case when validity or supreme rights are at stake (as explained in 678, 679).
(d) As between the more likely and the less likely, one must be a Probabiliorist, when this is according to law, as is the case in civil suits where the preponderance of evidence must be followed (see 697).
(e) One may not follow either Tutiorism (see above, 676) as a general moral system, nor Laxism (see above, 681).
(f) If a probable opinion for liberty is opposed by no contrary probable opinion or by none whose arguments cannot be overcome, one is free to follow that opinion, as explained in 649, 703.
(g) If a probable opinion for liberty is opposed by an opinion that is less, equally or more probable, one is free to act according to the principles of Probabiliorism, Equiprobabilism, Probabilism or Compensationism, according to conviction.
741. As for the use of moral systems by confessors, the two following rules are generally admitted:
(a) If a penitent has formed his conscience according to one moral system, the confessor has no right to impose on him the opinion of a different moral system; for the Church allows liberty.
(b) If a penitent has not formed his conscience according to any moral system and seeks the answer to a moral doubt, the confessor should decide, not necessarily for what his own system declares lawful, but for what appears, all the circ.u.mstances being considered, to be most advantageous spiritually for the penitent. Example: Fr. t.i.tus is a Probabilist, and he usually advises questioners to follow opinions that are less probable; while Fr. Caius, who is a Probabiliorist, always requires that such persons follow the more probable opinions. Both act unwisely. For persons who are better disposed, it will often be more profitable to follow what is more probable or favorable to obligation; for those Whose dispositions are less good, milder opinions may be recommended, lest the smoking flax of goodness that is in them be entirely extinguished. Neither is it right to impose as certain an obligation which the penitent, if he were acquainted with Moral Theology, would see is controverted.
742. In case of disagreement between confessor and penitent as to whether absolution may be given, whose opinion should prevail? (a) If the disagreement is concerned with matters about which the confessor himself has to judge (e.g., the disposition of the penitent, the requisite matter for absolution, etc.), the opinion of the confessor must prevail; for the act of judging is his own, and he must be guided therefore by his own conviction.
(b) If the disagreement is concerned with matters about which the confessor is not the judge (such as the controversies of schools and theologians), the confessor may not refuse absolution to a well-disposed penitent, just because the latter will not accept the opinion of his school or system. If it be manifest that the penitent"s opinion is false or improbable, absolution may be denied him, unless it seems more prudent to leave him in good faith.
PART II
SPECIAL MORAL THEOLOGY
743. In the First Part of this work, the means to man"s Last End were spoken of in a general way; the features that are common to all good acts--that they be human, morally deserving, directed according to law and conscience--were treated. In the present Part the means to the Last End will be discussed in particular, and we shall consider in turn the kinds of duties that are owed by all men and those owed by persons in special states of life.
Question I
THE DUTIES OF ALL CLa.s.sES OF MEN
744. Good habits, specifically different, are all reducible to seven most general virtues (see 150, 151), and hence in studying these seven virtues, we shall at the same time study all the common duties of man.
745. The properties of the seven infused virtues are chiefly four:
(a) In the first place, these virtues may be increased: "This I pray, that your charity may more and more abound" (Phil, i. 9). The increase takes place _ex opere operato_ through the Sacraments, or _ex opere operantis_ through meritorious works--that is, whenever sanctifying grace, their root, is increased.
(b) A second property of the infused virtues is that they may be lost: "I have somewhat against thee, because thou hast left thy first charity" (Apoc., ii. 4); "Some have made shipwreck concerning the faith" (I Tim., i. 19). The loss is caused by the contrary of the virtue: faith is lost by disbelief, hope by despair; charity and the moral virtues are lost by any mortal sin, for they are built on sanctifying grace, which mortal sin destroys.
(c) A third property of the infused virtues is that they cannot be diminished directly. If we leave out of consideration their opposites (which, as just said, remove these virtues entirely), there is nothing else that can act directly upon them. Mere failure to exercise them cannot lessen them, since they are caused by divine infusion, not by human exercise; venial sin cannot lessen them, since it does not lessen grace on which they depend.
(d) A fourth property of the infused virtues is that they are diminished indirectly. Failure to practise them or venial sin does diminish the ease and fervor with which the acts of these virtues are exercised; and thus indirectly--that is, by preparing the way for acts that are directly contrary--neglect or venial sin diminishes the habits themselves.
Art. 2: THE VIRTUE OF FAITH
(_Summa Theologica_, II-II, qq. 1-9.)
746. The order of the theological virtues here followed is that given by St. Paul in I Cor., xiii. 13--viz., faith, hope, charity. The order of these virtues is twofold: (a) according to dignity the order is charity, hope, faith; (b) according to time, the order is that of I Cor., xiii. The habits of these three virtues are infused at the same time (i.e., at the moment when grace is conferred), but their acts are not simultaneous, and one must believe before one can hope or love.
747. Excellence of the Virtue of Faith.--(a) Faith is the beginning of the supernatural life, the foundation and the root of justification, without which it is impossible to please G.o.d and arrive at fellowship with Him. (b) It is an antic.i.p.ation of the end of the supernatural life, for by faith we believe that which we shall behold in the beatific vision: "All these died according to faith, not having received the promises, but beholding them afar off, and saluting them and confessing that they are pilgrims and strangers on the earth"
(Heb., xi. 13).
748. Utility of Faith for the Individual.--(a) Through faith the intellect receives a new light, which discloses to it a higher world--"the wisdom of G.o.d in a mystery" (I Cor., ii. 7)--and which illuminates even this lower world with a heavenly brightness, that man may know more quickly, more surely, and more perfectly the natural truths that pertain to G.o.d and duty. (b) The will is strengthened to perform duties valiantly through the motives and examples which faith offers: the patriarchs of old "by faith conquered kingdoms, wrought justice, obtained promises, recovered strength from weakness" (Heb., xi. 33). In adversity faith is a stay and a consolation: "For what things soever were written, were written for our learning, that through patience and the comfort of the scriptures, we might have hope" (Rom., xv. 4).
749. Utility of Faith for Society.--(a) Domestic society is defended in its security and happiness by faith, which teaches the sacramental character of marriage, which offers the model of the Holy Family to Christian homes, which never ceases to declare in the name of G.o.d the duties of husbands and wives, parents and children. (b) Without faith and religion civil society cannot be maintained in strength and prosperity. It is faith in G.o.d more than laws or armies that gives security to life, reputation, and property, with order and peace at home and abroad.
750. The Meaning of Faith.--In Holy Scripture and other religious writings the word _faith_ has various meanings.
(a) Sometimes it stands for a promise, or for the quality of being true to one"s promises. Examples: St. Paul condemns widows who remarry against their word, "because they have made void their first faith (promise)" (I Tim., v. 12). Speaking of the unbelief of the Jews, he says: "Shall their unbelief make the faith (i.e., fidelity to promise or faithfulness) of G.o.d without effect? G.o.d forbid. But G.o.d is true"
(Rom, iii. 3, 4).
(b) Sometimes the term _faith_ stands for good reputation, or for confidence in another. Examples: "He that discloseth the secret of a friend loseth his faith (credit, reputation), and shall never find a friend to his mind" (Ecclus., xxvii. 17); "O thou of little faith (trust, confidence), why didst thou doubt?" (Matt., xiv. 31).
(c) Sometimes _faith_ stands for truths or doctrines offered for one"s belief, or for the a.s.sent of the mind to the judgment of conscience or to the revelation of G.o.d. Examples: "Thou has not denied My faith"
(that is, "the truths revealed by Me," Apoc. ii. 13); "All that is not of faith (i.e., from the firm conviction of conscience) is sin" (Rom, xiv. 23); "Without faith (i.e., a.s.sent to the unseen on the word of G.o.d) it is impossible to please G.o.d; for he that cometh to G.o.d must believe" (Heb., xi. 6).
751. It is faith only in the last sense that is known as the theological virtue of faith, and hence with it alone we are here concerned. St. Paul describes this faith as follows: "Faith is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things that appear not" (Heb., xi. 1). This verse is variously interpreted. (a) According to St. Chrysostom, the meaning is: Faith is the subsistence or antic.i.p.ated existence in the soul of future blessings that are hoped for, through the firm confidence it gives; it is the conviction of the reality of the unseen. (b) According to St. Thomas, the meaning is: Faith is the substance or basis on which is built the hope of blessedness, or on which rests as on its foundation the whole work of justification; it is an argument producing certainty of that which is not seen. The elements of St. Thomas" interpretation have been incorporated into the Vatican Council"s definition: "The Catholic Church professes that this faith which is the beginning of human salvation is a supernatural virtue by which we, with the aid and inspiration of the grace of G.o.d, believe that the things revealed by Him are true, not because the intrinsic truth of these things has been perceived by the natural light of reason, but because of the authority of G.o.d Himself revealing, who can neither deceive nor be deceived"
(Sess. 3, chap. 3, Denz. 1789).
752. Thus, faith is an intellectual habit and act, but it differs from all other intellectual habits and acts as follows: (a) it differs from science, vision, understanding, for its object is "the things that appear not"; (b) it differs from opinion, doubt, suspicion, for it is a firm "substance," a certain "evidence"; (c) it differs from human faith or belief resting on man"s word and promises, for it is the pledge, beginning and cornerstone of the happiness promised by G.o.d Himself.
753. Faith will now be considered according to two aspects: (a) objectively, as regards the things that are believed by him who has faith; (b) subjectively, as regards the habit and act of the believer which put him in contact with these truths of the unseen world.
754. The Object of Faith.--There is a twofold object of faith, viz., material and formal.
(a) The material object, or the truth that is believed, includes all that is contained in the Word of G.o.d, whether written or handed down by tradition. The princ.i.p.al material object is G.o.d Himself as the Deity, or Supreme Truth in Being (_prima veritas in essendo_); the secondary material object embraces all other revealed truths.