2569. Modesty in Style of Living and Dress.-(a) The Virtue.--External goods, such as dwellings and clothing, are necessary for body and soul, as a protection to health and decency; others, such as furnishings, decorations, ornaments, cars, radios, entertainments for guests, etc., are useful for convenience, beauty and the maintenance of one"s station. But one may be immoderate in the use of these goods, and hence there is need of a virtue to regulate their use, so that it may truthfully be in keeping with one"s position and be not offensive to others.
(b) The Sin of Excess.--This is committed when one"s style is extravagant according to the standards of the community, or when like Dives, clothed in purple and fine linen, one aims only at display or sensual gratification, or when one is too much preoccupied with externals (e.g., when too much time is spent before the mirror or too much money at the dressmaker"s). Dignitaries and the ministers of the altar are not guilty of excess in the pomp and splendor which the Church sanctions, since the honor is intended for their station and the divine worship they perform.
(c) The Sin of Defect.--This is committed when one"s mode of life is not up to the reasonable standard of one"s community, especially if this is due to negligence or itch for notoriety or disregard for decency. Examples are those who through carelessness go about unwashed or unshaven, who keep their quarters in a filthy and disorderly state, or who wear their clothing untidily; also females who dress in male attire, nudists who appear undressed in public places, and cynics who scorn the conventions of refined society. It is not sinful, however, but a virtuous act of temperance, to wear simpler and poorer garments from the spirit of mortification and humility (Heb., xi. 37). The clergy and religious, since they should be models of the penitential spirit, are to be praised, therefore, when they give an example of plainness and simplicity in personal style and dress.
2570. Morality of Self-Beautification.--Is it wrong to beautify oneself in order to improve one"s looks or to win admiration?
(a) In itself there is no harm, especially for females, in using means to improve one"s looks, such as remedies for deformities, facial paints, powders and cosmetics, hair waves and dyes, and the like. But accidentally there could be sin (e.g., deception). A poor man would be a deceiver if he lived in great style to make a woman believe he was wealthy, and likewise a woman would be a deceiver if she used an artificial beauty to deceive a man about her age (see 2404).
(b) In itself also it is not sinful to desire that others approve one"s appearance and dress. Thus, a wife should strive to be attractive to her husband (I Cor., vii. 34), and modest ornamentation may be used to win a suitor (I Tim., ii. 9). It is mortally sinful, however, to attire oneself with the purpose or in a manner to arouse carnal temptation or to awaken sinful desire in others--for example, if one wishes to capture the s.e.x love of others without marriage (Prov., vii. 10); it is venially sinful to groom oneself well from mere vanity, that is, from a silly ambition to be regarded as handsome and fashionable. By a Decree of the Sacred Congregation of the Council (January 12, 1930), parish-priests, parents, and teachers are admonished to oppose indecent female dress; and it is ordered that women and girls improperly dressed shall be excluded from Communion or even from church, and special services and sermons on decency are prescribed for December 8 of each year (see 1456, 1457).
2571. Complements of the Virtue of Temperance.--(a) The Gift of the Holy Ghost that perfects temperance is fear of the Lord. The virtue of temperance makes one abstain from unlawful pleasures because to do so is reasonable; fear of the Lord inclines one to the same abstinence from reverence. The Gift of Fear looks first to the greatness of the Heavenly Father, before whom the nations are as a drop in the bucket and are counted as the smallest grain of the balance and the islands as but a little dust (Is., xl. 15); and in this respect it represses presumption and serves the virtue of hope (see 1041 sqq.). But secondarily it looks to the insignificance of every delight that is apart from G.o.d, and sees that these inferior joys are pa.s.sing, insipid and bitter, like dust blown away by the wind, like a thin froth dispersed by the storm, like smoke scattered by the breeze (Wis., v.
15), like a sweet poison that turns to gall and destroys (Job, xx. 12 sqq.); and in this respect fear of G.o.d sustains temperance, which must regulate the cravings of the flesh and lower appet.i.tes. Fear of G.o.d, then, makes one fly from those things which chiefly allure one to offend Him, and hence the Psalmist (Ps. cxviii. 120) prays: "Pierce Thou my flesh with Thy fear."
(b) The Beat.i.tude that corresponds to the present Gift is the second: "Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted." Those who have the fear of G.o.d perceive the true nature of illicit joys and the evil end that awaits those who chase after them. They prefer, then, to be sorrowful, that is, to deprive themselves of every wicked pleasure and love for the sake of the love of G.o.d in this life and the enjoyment of G.o.d in the life to come: "Your sorrow shall be changed into joy"
(John, xx. 16).
(c) The fruits of fear of the Lord are modesty, continency and chast.i.ty. Like a good tree that produces a rich harvest of delightful fruits, filial reverence for G.o.d brings forth acts of virtue that have in them a delicious savor more enjoyable and more lasting than the fruits of the flesh. These goodly and pleasant fruits of the spirit of fear of G.o.d are modesty in words, deeds and external things, continency of the single and chast.i.ty of the married in thoughts and desires.
2572. The Commandments of Temperance.--(a) Negative Precepts.--In the Decalogue the vices of intemperance that are most directly opposed to the love of G.o.d and the neighbor (I Tim., i. 5) are expressly forbidden, namely, adultery in act and adultery in desire. Elsewhere other sins are forbidden. Thus, drunkenness ("Drunkards shall not possess the kingdom," I Cor., vi. 10), every kind of l.u.s.t ("The works of the flesh are fornication, uncleanness, immodesty, luxury . . .
those who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom," Gal., v. 19, 21), anger ("Let all bitterness and anger and indignation be put away from you," Eph., iv. 31), pride ("G.o.d resisteth the proud," James, iv.
6), etc.
(b) Affirmative Precepts.--The positive modes of observing temperance (i.e., rules on fasting) are not prescribed in the Decalogue. For the law confines itself to general principles that, are of universal application, whereas the manner of practising fasts and abstinences has to be suited to conditions of time and place. Hence, it pertains to the Church to settle by her legislation the details of mortification in eating and drinking, so that they may be suited to the ever-changing conditions of human life (2469).
Question III
THE DUTIES OF PARTICULAR CLa.s.sES OF MEN
2573. The theological and moral virtues treated in the previous Question are obligatory upon all states and conditions, for all men have the same supernatural destiny, and all alike are bound to govern their acts and their pa.s.sions by the rule of reason. But not all have the same calling or office, or consequently the same particular ends to be striven for or the same special means to be used; wherefore, there are moral duties proper to particular cla.s.ses and particular ways of life. Those special obligations, however, do not const.i.tute new virtues, but are applications of the seven general virtues to the states of man diversified in reference to the acts and habits of the soul. The diversities now spoken of may be reduced to the three mentioned by St. Paul (I Cor., xii. 4 sqq.), namely, diversities of graces (i.e., some are gifted to edify the Church in marvellous ways by knowledge, speech or miracles), diversities of operations (i.e., some are called to the life of contemplation, others to active life), and diversities of ministries (i.e., there are various stations, ranks, occupations, both in ecclesiastical and non-ecclesiastical life). The higher graces and ways of the spiritual life of man are treated in works of ascetical and mystical theology, and we shall confine ourselves here to two subjects: (a) the duties of men as members of the Church, that is, the general duties of the faithful and the special duties of clerics and religious; (b) the duties of men as members of domestic and civil society.
Before proceeding any further, a word is in order regarding the role of the laity in the Church.
"We desire that all who claim the Church as their mother should seriously consider that not only the sacred ministers and those who have consecrated themselves to G.o.d in religious life, but the other members as well of the Mystical Body of Jesus Christ, have the obligation of working hard and constantly for the upbuilding and increase of this Body" (Pius XII, _Mystici Corporis_).
The Catholic layman, long a silent partner in the Church"s apostolate, has a.s.sumed a more active part in recent years. His role, his apostolate, his milieu, his special claims to divine graces, his spiritual prerogatives--all have been made subjects of theological investigation particularly by European writers. Controversy, uncertainty, at times even error have characterized their efforts as they grope their way in a new area of theology. Their efforts ultimately will lead to the elaboration of a developed theology of the laity, an extremely important and equally necessary body of knowledge, for "the laity are in the front line of the Church"s life; through them the Church is the vital principle of human society. Accordingly they especially must have an ever clearer consciousness not only of belonging to the Church, but of being the Church . . . " (Pius XII, _Allocution to the Sacred College, AAS_, 38-149).[1]
[1] To detail the advances made in this new area of theology would demand a volume for itself. We shall have to be content with indicating a select bibliography of the outstanding works available.
Francis M. Keating, S.J., "Theology of the Laity," _Proceedings of the Catholic Theological Society of America_, 1956, pp. 196 ff.; Ives M. J.
Congar, O.P., _Jalons pour une theologie du lacat_, (Paris, Cerf, 1953); translated as _Lay People in the Church_, (The Newman Press, Westminster, Md., 1957); G. Philips, _Le role du lacat dans l"Eglise, (Casterman, Tournai-Paris, 1954); translated as _The Role of the Laity in the Church_. (Mercier, Cork, 1955); Karl Rahner, "The Apostolate of Laymen," _Theology Digest_, (Spring 1957), pp. 73 ff.; Jacques Leclercq, "Can a Layman be a Saint?" _Theology Digest_, (Winter 1956), pp. 3 ff. (This same issue contains a select bibliography on spirituality of the laity, p. 8.); Paul Dabin, S.J., _Le sacerdoce royal des fidles dans les livres saints_, (Blond et Gay, 1941); _Le sacerdoce royal des fidles dans la tradition ancienne et moderne_, (Les Editions Universelles, Brussels, 1950): Gustave Weigel, S.J., "The Body of Christ and the City of G.o.d," _Social Order_, (Vol. 5, 1955, p.
275 ff.).
Art. 1: THE DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH
2574. The General Duties of the Faithful.--The Church has the power to make laws which will promote the common good of the whole body and the individual good of the members (see 418). Chief among the laws that bind the faithful in general are the six known as the Precepts of the Church, namely, the laws on the observance of Sundays and holydays, on fasting and abstinence, on yearly confession, on Easter Communion, on the support of pastors, and on marriage.
2575. The First Precept of the Church.--This precept commands that on Sundays and holydays of obligation Ma.s.s be heard and servile and other like works be omitted (Canons 1247-1249) by the subjects of church laws (427 sqq.).
(a) This precept is of natural and divine law as to its purpose and substance, for reason teaches and the Third Commandment of the Decalogue prescribes that man set aside some time for the external worship of G.o.d, and avoid those things that distract him from worship (Catechism of the Council of Trent, pp. 396 sqq,). Hence, even non-Catholics, though they do not sin by missing Ma.s.s (429, 430), are guilty of sin if they do not from time to time worship G.o.d externally.
(b) This precept is of ecclesiastical law only as to its details (i.e., the time set apart and the manner of worship and sanctification decreed). The Old Testament Law observed the Sabbath or last day of the Week in memory of the creation of the World, and it abstained most rigorously from work on the Sabbath, because there was a divine prohibition and because this rest was a figure of things to come. But in the New Law the ceremonial precepts of Judaism no longer have force, and the Christian precepts subst.i.tuted for them were not inst.i.tuted by Christ Himself but arose from the custom of the Church. During the lifetime of the Apostles themselves Sunday (or the first day of the week) came to be venerated as the Lord"s Day in memory of the Resurrection, which completed the work of Redemption (Acts, ii. 46, iii. 1, v. 12, xxi. 26); and from early times various special holydays were appointed and made days of obligatory worship, as had been the case with certain feasts in the Old Testament. As early as the third and fourth centuries laws were made confirming the primitive customs of a.s.sisting at Ma.s.s and resting on Sundays and holydays.
2576. The Affirmative and Negative Parts of the First Precept.--The first precept of the Church has two parts, an affirmative (preceptive) part which commands the hearing of Ma.s.s, and a negative (prohibitive) part which forbids the doing of servile works. The law is therefore most salutary and simple, requiring that one take part in the greatest act of worship, the sacrifice which is a commemoration of Christ, and that one rest from the labors and cares of the week and be spiritually refreshed. In reference to the Ma.s.s, the precept requires that Ma.s.s itself be heard, and that it be an entire Ma.s.s and the same Ma.s.s.
(a) Thus, Ma.s.s itself must be heard, and hence one does not satisfy the Sunday obligation by attending other services that precede (e.g., the Asperges, blessing of palm), accompany (e.g., sermon), or follow (e.g., Vespers, Benediction) the celebration of Ma.s.s. Neither does this precept oblige one to attend other services on Sunday, although it is most suitable to do this, also to make internal acts of faith, hope and charity, and to read pious books and perform works of charity, and it is sometimes necessary as a natural obligation to attend the sermon or catechetical instruction (see 914 sqq.).
(b) A whole Ma.s.s must be heard, that is, all the ceremonies from the prayers at the foot of the altar until the blessing at the end, and it is irreverent to leave church without necessity before the priest has left the altar. He who can a.s.sist at only the essential and integral parts of the sacrifice (i.e., from the Consecration to the Communion), is obliged to so much; but he who arrives after the Consecration and cannot hear another Ma.s.s is not obliged according to one opinion to remain for the present Ma.s.s, since the Consecration, the essential part, is already past.
(c) The same Ma.s.s must be heard, and hence one cannot satisfy the obligation by hearing the first half of one Ma.s.s being said on one altar and the second half of another Ma.s.s being said simultaneously on another altar (see Denzinger, n. 1203), nor by hearing the Consecration in one Ma.s.s and the Communion in a previous or subsequent Ma.s.s, thus dividing the sacrifice. But if one may have heard from the Consecration to the end in one Ma.s.s, one may hear the omitted pre-Consecration parts, it seems, in another Ma.s.s that follows, and one should do this if possible.
2577. How Ma.s.s Must Be Heard.--In reference to the person who hears Ma.s.s, the positive part of the precept calls for external a.s.sistance and internal devotion.
(a) Thus, the external or bodily a.s.sistance must be such that one can be said to take part in the divine worship. This happens when one is physically present, that is, when one is in the same building or place as the celebrant and can either see or hear him, or is morally present, that is, not in the same building but able to see or hear him naturally (e.g., by looking from the window of a neighboring house), or is unable to see or hear him but joined with the congregation (e.g., those who are outside the closed doors of the church but who can follow the bells and choir to some extent, those who are inside with the congregation but behind a pillar that shuts off the view). In a field Ma.s.s amplifiers can carry the voice far out to the edge of a vast crowd. But there does not seem to be a sufficient moral presence when Ma.s.s is "seen" by television or "heard" over the radio, since in these cases one is not present to the consecrated species or united to the worshippers.
(b) Internal or mental a.s.sistance requires the actual or virtual intention of the will to perform what the Church requires (see 2165), and the attention of the mind, external according to some, internal according to others (see 2166 sqq.). Thus, he who goes to church merely to hear the music or look at the pictures does not hear Ma.s.s for lack of intention; he who sleeps soundly all through the service does not hear Ma.s.s for lack of attention. One who knows what is going on before him, but whose thoughts are not on any religious matter, complies with the precept of the Church according to some, but he sins by irreverence and voluntary distraction. It suffices during Ma.s.s to think either on the Ma.s.s itself (which is the best attention), or to think on other pious subjects (e.g., to make an examination of conscience, to say the Rosary). Certain actions (e.g., those that are related to the Ma.s.s, such as ringing the bell, taking up the collection, playing the organ) do not exclude external attention, but others certainly exclude it (e.g., writing a letter), and others are doubtful (e.g., going to Confession).
2578. Time and Place of Ma.s.s.--In reference to circ.u.mstances, the precept requires that Ma.s.s be heard at the proper place and the proper time.
(a) Place.--The precept may be complied with by attending Ma.s.s in any Catholic rite (Latin, Greek, etc.), and it makes no difference whether Ma.s.s is celebrated in the open air, in a church, or in a public or semi-public oratory (Canon 1249). But private chapels are for the benefit of the grantee alone.
(b) Time.--The precept must be complied with on the feast itself, that is, during the period of twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight.
Sunday Ma.s.s cannot be antic.i.p.ated on Sat.u.r.day or put off till Monday.
Likewise servile works are unlawful from midnight to midnight.
2579. Servile Works.--The prohibitory part of the precept is concerned with servile works, that is, labor of a kind that tends to make one unfit for devotion or that shows disrespect for the sacredness of the day, even though the labor be done gratis, or for recreation, or out of devotion. Hence, the law forbids:
(a) works given to the service of the devil, that is, sins that deprive one of holiness, such as riotous recreations, gambling, drunkenness, reading improper matter, and attendance at evil movie performances. But these works are opposed to the end, not to the text, of the law; and hence the circ.u.mstance of time aggravates their malice but does not give them a new species (see 2314);
(b) works given to the service of the body (servile works properly so called) or to the service of external goods (forensic and commercial works). Servile works in the strict sense cause bodily fatigue and are taken up with material things, and hence they distract the mind from religious thoughts. Such are manual labors (e.g., plowing, digging, housecleaning) and mechanical or industrial labors (e.g., printing, building, plastering, shoemaking). Forensic and commercial labors (e.g., arguing in court, auctioneering) are also of a very worldly kind and unsuitable for the quiet and recollection of Sundays and holydays.
2580. The prohibitory part of the Sunday precept does not affect works which are no impediment to devotion and which cast no dishonor on the day. Such are:
(a) works devoted immediately to the service of G.o.d. The purpose of the law is to allow leisure for these works, and hence manifestly their performance is not forbidden. Such works are saying Ma.s.s, preaching, administering the Sacraments, singing in church, and visiting the poor and sick (John, vii. 23; Matt., xii. 5). But works that are only remotely related to divine worship (e.g., cleaning the church, painting the altar, repairing the vestments, decorating the shrines) should not be done on Sunday without necessity;
(b) works devoted to the service of the mind (liberal works). These works are of a more elevated kind, do not require great bodily exertion, and are not looked upon as unsuitable to the Sabbath. Such are intellectual works (e.g., teaching, reading, writing, studying), artistic works (e.g., playing the organ, singing, drawing, painting a picture, embroidering), and works of recreation (moderate sports or diversions such as baseball, tennis, and chess).
2581. Other Kinds of Works and Sunday Observance.--(a) Common works are those that stand between the liberal and the servile, since they are exercised equally by mind and body, such as walking, riding, hunting, and fishing that is not very laborious. These are lawful.
(b) Doubtful works are those that are now non-servile, now servile, according to the manner in which they are conducted, such as the work of painters, sculptors, typists, seamstresses, and photographers. Thus, it is a liberal work to paint a portrait, a servile work to paint the walls of a house. In settling the character of various kinds of work, one must be guided by the prudent opinion of one"s locality, and in case of doubt and need must seek a dispensation. (For a history of the theology of servile works see Franz X. Pettirsch, S.J., "A Theology of Sunday Rest," _Theology Digest_, Vol. VI, no. 2, Spring 1958, pp. 114 ff.; for a survey of modern studies on the problem see _Proceedings of the Catholic Theological Society of America_, 1957).
2582. Is it lawful without necessity to hire the servile work of non-Catholics on Sunday, if these persons are not thereby impeded from the natural duty of worshipping G.o.d and no scandal is given? (a) If the non-Catholics are infidels and not bound by church laws, this is lawful. The same would be true of those who lack the use of reason (see 427 sqq.). (b) If the non-Catholics are heretics, it is not lawful in the case given to make them work on Sunday.