994. Examination about one"s religious status refers either to one"s faith, or to something not necessarily connected with faith. (a) When a person is examined about his faith (e.g., whether he is a Catholic, whether he believes in the doctrine of the Real Presence, or in Papal Infallibility), profession of faith is obligatory, if its omission is equivalent to denial. (b) When he is examined about something not necessarily connected with faith, denial or concealment of the truth would not be denial of faith, and concealment might be lawful, if the question were unfair. Evasion would be sinful, if the denial or concealment contained a lie or caused scandal. Examples: If a missionary in England or Ireland in the sixteenth century had refused to admit that he was a priest or religious, or a layman had refused to confess that he had harbored a priest in his house or had a.s.sisted at Ma.s.s, these denials would not necessarily contain a denial of the faith.
995. Examination about one"s faith is made either by a private person or by public authority.
(a) When a person is questioned about his religious belief by a private person, he is not bound by reason of the question itself to make a profession of his faith, for a private person has no authority to call upon one in the capacity of a solemn and public witness; but he is bound to make a profession of faith by reason of circ.u.mstances, if the honor of G.o.d or the good of his neighbor requires that he declare his belief. Examples: t.i.tius is known as a very iniquisitive and meddlesome character, who is continually asking others about their personal affairs and putting silly questions. Wherefore, those who know him are accustomed to pay no attention to his questions, or to tell him to mind his business, or to give him some humorous reply. One day t.i.tius asked Balbus, whom he knew very well to be a Catholic: "What is your religion?" Balbus retorted: "What is yours?" and left him. Caius is studying Christianity with a view to embracing it, and asks Semp.r.o.nius"
opinion on miracles. Semp.r.o.nius, fearing the ridicule of some others present if he admits belief in miracles, says that he knows nothing about that subject. Balbus had a right to deny an answer to his questioner; but Semp.r.o.nius should have replied for the edification of Caius and the honor of G.o.d.
(b) When a person is questioned about his religious belief by public authority, his obligation to make a profession of faith is certain, if the questioner has the right according to law to ask the question, and if it is made to one individually and out of hatred of the faith; for to this case apply the words of Christ: "You shall be brought before governors and kings for My sake, for a testimony to them and to the Gentiles" (Matt., x. 18).
996. In the following cases, one is not bound to confession of faith on account of the public authority that puts the question, although one may be bound on account of the circ.u.mstances:
(a) When the question is not put to an individual, but to a whole community, by a law which requires them in time of persecution to deliver themselves up as Christians or Catholics, there is no obligation to comply with this law, since it is unjust, and neither the honor of G.o.d nor the good of others requires one to make the profession of faith it demands (see 377, 552).
(b) When the question is put to an individual by one in authority but contrary to the law of the land, there is no obligation to answer.
Thus, if according to civil law the magistrates have no right to examine about matters of conscience and one of them should nevertheless do so, the party questioned could treat the question as out of order and deny any answer.
(c) When the question is made according to law, but does not proceed from hatred of the faith, one is not obliged positively to profess one"s faith, unless the omission would seem to those present to be a denial of faith. Thus, a person might remain silent, or say that he did not wish to answer, that he did not wish to say what his belief was, etc., and in the circ.u.mstances it would seem that he would not be denying his faith, but merely for some reason refusing to discuss it when he thought there was no necessity.
997. The third case mentioned above (see 991), in which one is obliged to profess one"s faith publicly, is when the faith is. being attacked in one"s presence. The honor of G.o.d and the good of the neighbor then require one to speak out. (a) Thus, if the doctrines of the faith are being blasphemed or ridiculed, one should defend them, if one is able.
Otherwise, one should protest or leave the company, if this will be advantageous to religion. (b) If sacred things are being profaned, one should resist physically, if one is able to prevent what is going on.
998. Debates on religion between Catholics and non-Catholics are not in themselves wrong, but as a rule they are useless and inexpedient.
(a) That such debates are not essentially wrong, is clear from the fact that a suitable defender of the faith is able by argumentation to show the misconceptions that are entertained about the faith and the fallacious objections that are made against it. This is honorable to G.o.d and profitable to the neighbor: "Saul confounded the Jews that dwelt at Damascus, affirming that this is the Christ .... He spoke also to the Gentiles and disputed with the Greeks" (Acts, ix. 22, 29).
(b) That controversy is generally unprofitable is a matter of experience. Religious debates often lead to bitterness, and seldom effect conversions. There is, moreover, an ever-present danger that the sophistry or eloquence of an adversary may give him the appearance of victory to the discredit of the faith, for even a foolish person can raise difficulties which only a wise man can answer.
999. Consequently the rule governing religious disputations is that they should be avoided, unless ecclesiastical authority deems them useful at times. (a) If no provocation is offered, or if no good seems likely to result from a debate, it should be avoided. (b) If one is attacked and it seems that the honor of G.o.d and the good of souls will be served by a debate, then capable and prudent speakers are permitted by the Church to defend the faith, provided permission is secured from the Holy See, or, in case of urgency, from the local Ordinary (Canon 1325, 3). The prescriptions of this Canon were reaffirmed recently by the Holy Office and applied especially to "ec.u.menical" conventions convoked to promote church unity. Catholics, both lay and clerical, may in no way be present at such meetings without the previous consent of the Holy See (Holy Office, Monitum, June 5, 1948). See Appendix II.
1000. The divine precept of profession of faith so far considered obliges on account of the virtue of faith itself, that is, on account of the external honor or service due to the Word of G.o.d. There is also a divine precept of profession of faith which obliges on account of other virtues that may require such a profession of faith to be made (e.g., on account of charity or justice). The omission of the profession of faith in these cases, however, is not a sin against faith, but against the other virtues, and should be confessed as such.
(a) Justice requires a profession of faith when, by reason of his office, a person has the duty of teaching others in the faith, for to teach the faith is to manifest one"s own belief in it. Hence, bishops and other pastors are obliged to preach: "Woe is unto me, if I preach not the Gospel" (I Cor., ix. 16); and their teaching is a manifestation of faith: "Having the same spirit of faith, as it is written: I believed, for which cause I have spoken; we also believe, and therefore we speak also" (II Cor., iv., 13).
(b) Charity requires a profession of faith when a person has not the office of teacher, but has a suitable opportunity to impart instruction to one who is in great ignorance about religion. For, as charity requires one to perform corporal works of mercy for the suffering and dest.i.tute, so it requires one to perform spiritual works of mercy for the spiritually indigent, such as to instruct the ignorant, to counsel the doubtful. Thus, a lay person who can prudently do so (the circ.u.mstances of time, place, person, etc., being duly considered), ought in charity to instruct in faith and morals the neglected children around him.
1001. One is not bound to give instruction about matters of faith or morals when this would lead to more harm than good; but misrepresentation must be avoided.
(a) The purpose of instruction is to fulfill the will of G.o.d and to benefit others; therefore, if these ends are not obtained but rather defeated by an instruction, it should be omitted. The truth is always good in itself, but its communication may not be expedient on account of the recipient, who, being immature, may be harmed by the wrong impression he will receive, or who, being badly disposed, may use knowledge as a means to wrongdoing. Strong meat should not be given to infants (Heb., vi. 11-14); pearls should not be cast before swine (Matt., vii. 6). Examples: The mysteries of the faith (e.g., transubstantiation), should be explained with caution to those who are not well instructed, lest they be overwhelmed with the brightness and misunderstand. Difficult matters (such as predestination) or dangerous subjects (such as s.e.x duties) should not be discussed indiscriminately with all kinds of persons. It is not right to instruct those who are in ignorance of their duty, if this is not absolutely necessary and one foresees that instruction will not prevent them from continuing in evil ways but will only add to their guilt. It is wrong to put the Bible into the hands of those who will use it for bad purposes.
(b) Misrepresentation or suppression is a lie, and in matters of doctrine a denial of faith; hence, it is never lawful. The rule to be followed, therefore, in teaching the faith is that one communicate the same doctrine to all, but according to the capacity of his hearers--to some in outline and to others more fully. This was the method of Christ, who "with many parables spoke to them the word, according as they were able to hear" (Mark, iv. 33).
1002. The Church has the duty not only of keeping the faith untarnished among Catholics, but also of spreading it among non-Catholics, Protestants, Jews and infidels, as far as circ.u.mstances will allow. For G.o.d "Will have all men to be saved, and to come to the knowledge of the truth" (I Tim., ii. 4). Those, therefore, who a.s.sist missionary work for unbelievers at home or abroad, do a work thrice blest, for (a) it is a thanksgiving offering to G.o.d, testifying our appreciation of the gift of faith which we have received from Him, (b) it is a work of charity to ourselves, for by helping others to receive the faith we strengthen our own faith, and (c) it is an act of supreme mercy to those who are sitting in darkness and the shadow of death.
1003, In addition to the divine precepts, there are also ecclesiastical laws prescribing profession of faith.
(a) Ecclesiastical precepts of profession of faith for various officials are contained in Canon 1406 and in the _Sacrorum Antist.i.tum_ of Pius X (September 1, 1910), and Canon 2403 decrees that those who contumaciously refuse to make the profession of faith of Canon 1406 may be deprived of their office. Converts to the faith who are received without absolute Baptism make an abjuration (Holy Office, July 20, 1859), and persons who have incurred excommunication on account of apostasy, heresy or schism are absolved in the external forum after juridical abjuration (Canon 2314).
(b) The purpose of these ecclesiastical laws is to prevent the acceptance of spiritual or temporal jurisdiction or authority in the Church, or the commission of teaching or the benefits of membership by those who are unbelievers. Hence, the purpose is grave, and the laws themselves are held to bind under grave sin.
(c) The persons bound by these ecclesiastical laws are both ecclesiastics and laymen, namely, those who are about to be received into or reconciled with the Church, and those who are about to be admitted to some dignity, order, office or function (such as candidates for the ranks of Cardinal, bishop, canon, parish priest, religious superior, professor, preacher, confessor, doctor, etc).
(d) The form of the profession of faith is the Tridentine or Pian given in the Bull of Pius IV, _Injunctum n.o.bis_, of November 13, 1564, with additions referring to the Vatican Council. The oath against Modernism prescribed in the _Sacrorum Antist.i.tum_ of Pius X, of September 1, 1910, is also obligatory.
(e) The times when these professions of faith must be made are at admission into the Church and at the reception or renewal of an office.
1004. The affirmative precepts of profession of faith, divine and ecclesiastical, oblige only at the proper time and place, and therefore on other occasions one is not obliged to make profession of faith. (a) Hence, one may avoid a profession of faith by evading interrogation in time of persecution--for example, through the payment of money to be exempted from examination, or through flight. As these acts indicate that the person is unwilling to deny his faith, but has reasons for wishing to preserve his life or to avoid the danger of apostasy, they are not of themselves unlawful, and may be a duty. (b) One may omit a profession of faith by concealing one"s religion, when prudence calls for concealment rather than publication.
1005. Flight in time of persecution is lawful or unlawful according to circ.u.mstances, since in itself it is something indifferent, being simply the act of moving from one place to another.
(a) Flight is unlawful, if one"s circ.u.mstances are such that one will do an injury to justice or charity by departure. Hence, a pastor would sin against justice if he fled in time of persecution, leaving his flock who stood in need of his presence: "The good shepherd giveth his life for his sheep. But the hireling and he that is not the shepherd, seeth the wolf coming, and leaveth the sheep and flieth" (John, x. 11, 12). Hence also, one who has no care of souls but whose presence is necessary to a persecuted community should prefer out of charity their spiritual good to his own bodily safety: "We ought to lay down our lives for the brethren" (I John, iii. 16).
(b) Flight is necessary, if one"s circ.u.mstances are such that one will do an injury to justice or charity by remaining. Hence, if a pastor"s life is necessary for his flock, while his absence can be supplied by others who will take his place, justice to his subjects requires that he save his life for their sake. Thus, for the good of souls St. Peter escaped from prison (Acts, xii. 17 sqq.); St. Paul fled from Damascus (Acts, ix. 24, 25); our Lord Himself hid when the Jews took up stones to cast at Him (John, viii. 59). Similarly, if a person is very fearful lest his courage may fail him if he is brought before the persecutors, charity to self requires that he take flight so as to escape the danger of apostasy.
(c) Flight is permissible, if there is no duty to remain and no duty to depart: "When they shall persecute you in this city, flee into another"
(Matt., x. 23). Hence, if one"s presence is useful but not necessary in time of persecution, it is lawful for one to flee. Some authorities hold that the desertion of Jesus by the disciples during the Pa.s.sion was not sinful flight.
1006. To refuse to flee when flight is permissible, is usually not advisable, for this is dangerous for most persons. It would be advisable, however, if a person had strong and prudent confidence of his victory, had the right intention, and used the means to prepare himself for the struggle.
1007. Concealment of one"s faith is lawful, if the requisite conditions are present.
(a) Thus, it is not lawful to conceal one"s faith at times when a profession of it is called for by divine or ecclesiastical law (see 991, 1003); at other times it is lawful. Example: t.i.tus is travelling in a country where there are no Catholic churches, and where no one ever asks him about his religion. He never tells anyone what he is.
(b) It is not lawful to conceal one"s faith from a dishonest motive.
Example: If t.i.tus conceals his religion in order not to be unjustly discriminated against, his motive is good; but if he wishes to be taken for a non-Catholic, his motive is evil.
(c) It is not lawful to conceal one"s faith in a sinful way. Example: If the means of concealment employed by t.i.tus imply deception or denial of the faith (such as lying about his origin and active partic.i.p.ation in non-Catholic worship), he is guilty of sinful concealment. But, if the means employed are permissible (such as silence about himself, omission of grace before and after meals, eating meat on Fridays in virtue of dispensation, etc.), his method of concealment is not sinful.
1008. Generally speaking, concealment of one"s religion is not advisable. (a) The reasons for concealment are often imaginary, rather than real. We see that Catholics who are not ashamed of their religion, or afraid to have it known that they practise it, are respected for their sincerity and conscientiousness even in bigoted regions, while on the contrary those who are apologetic or who do not live up to their religion are looked down on as cowards or hypocrites. (b) The means employed for concealment will cause endless doubts and scruples, for it is often difficult to decide what means are lawful and what unlawful.
Art. 4: THE VIRTUE OF HOPE
(_Summa Theologica_, II-II, qq. 17-22.)
1009. Definition.--The word "hope" is variously used. (a) In a wide and improper sense, it signifies the expectation of some wished-for evil, or desire without expectation. Hence, colloquially one hopes for misfortune to another (hope of a future evil), or that another has succeeded or is in good health (hope of past or present good), or that some unlooked-for fortune will turn up (hope without expectation). (b) In its strict and proper sense, hope signifies the expectation of some desired good in the future. Thus, one hopes to pa.s.s an examination, or to recover from illness.
1010. Hope, strictly understood, is of various kinds. (a) It is an emotion or an affection, according as it proceeds from the sensitive or the rational appet.i.te. The emotion of hope is an inclination of the irascible appet.i.te to possess some object known through the senses and apprehended as good and attainable, and is found both in man and in the brutes. The affection of hope is a spiritual inclination, tending to good as known through the reason.
(b) Hope is either natural or supernatural, according as it tends either to goods that are temporal and within the power of man to acquire, or to goods that are eternal and above the unaided powers of creatures. It is in this latter sense that hope is now taken.
1011. Supernatural hope is understood, sometimes in a wide sense, sometimes in a strict sense. (a) In a wide sense, it is used objectively to designate the object, material or formal, of hope. Thus, St. Paul is speaking of the material object of hope (i.e., of the things hoped for), when he says: "Hope that is seen is not hope" (Rom., viii. 24), "Looking for the blessed hope" (t.i.t., ii. 13); while the Psalmist is speaking of the formal object of hope (i.e., the motive of hope), when he says: "Thou hast been my hope, a tower of strength against the face of the enemy" (Ps. lx. 4). (b) In a strict sense, hope is used subjectively to designate the act or habit of hope. The act of hope is spoken of in the following texts: "We are saved by hope" (Rom., viii. 24); "Rejoicing in hope" (Rom., vii. 12). The habit of hope is indicated in these verses from Job and St. Paul: "This my hope is laid up in my bosom" (Job, xix. 27); "There remain faith, hope, charity, these three" (I Cor., xiii. 13). Hope is now taken in the strict sense, as a virtue or infused habit, from which proceed supernatural acts.
1012. The virtue of hope is defined: "An infused habit, by which we confidently expect to obtain, through the help of G.o.d, the reward of everlasting life."
(a) It is "an infused habit." These words express the genus to which hope belongs, and they set it apart from the emotion and the affection of hope, as well as from any acquired habit of hoping for purely natural goods. A natural virtue of hope, strengthening the will with reference to natural happiness, is not necessary in any state of man, fallen or unfallen, for the will does not stand in need of a superadded virtue with respect to those things that fall within its proper sphere of action.
(b) Hope is a habit "by which we expect, etc." These words express the specific subjective elements of hope, that is, the powers of the soul in which it resides and the kinds of acts it performs.