(b) Despair in itself is less serious than the sins of unbelief and hatred of G.o.d; for, while despair is opposed to G.o.d as He is our good, the other two sins are opposed to G.o.d"s own truth and goodness.
(c) Despair is more serious than the sins of unbelief and hatred of G.o.d with reference to the danger it contains for the sinner; for it paralyzes effort and resists remedies: "Why is my sorrow become perpetual and my wound desperate, so as to refuse to be healed?" (Jer., xv. 18) "If thou lose hope, being weary in the day of distress, thy strength shall be diminished" (Prov., xxiv. 10). Despair is, therefore, a sin against the Holy Ghost, a sort of attempt at spiritual suicide.
But (see 900) it is not unpardonable and may be overcome by divine grace.
1071. It is important to know the causes of despair, for this knowledge enables us to distinguish it from the mystical state known as "the dark night of the soul," and to prescribe suitable remedies. Despair comes from one"s own fault, whereas mystical purgation from G.o.d is a preparation for a higher state of divine union. The causes of despair can be reduced to two, luxury and sloth.
(a) The secondary characteristic of a hopeful pursuit of heaven is courage, the adventurous spirit which foregoes ease and comfort for the sake of higher things, despising the danger and difficulty. Hence, the vice of l.u.s.t, since it makes one love bodily delights and disregard or underestimate those that are spiritual, is a cause of despair, as well as of other sins opposed to the spiritual life (Gal., v. 17).
(b) The chief and most distinctive characteristic of hope is its cheerful confidence of success. Hence, the vice of sloth, since it is sadness weighing down the soul and making it unwilling to think rightly or to exert itself, is the princ.i.p.al cause of despair (Prov., xvii. 22).
1072. The apparent despair that is a trial to holy persons can be distinguished, therefore, from the sin of despair, especially by two signs: (a) though they are spiritually desolate and find no joy in religious practices, these persons do not turn to unlawful delights for consolation, but retain their dislike for lower pleasures; (b) though overcome with dismay at the thought of their own imperfection and of G.o.d"s holiness, they do not so lose heart as to give over their exercises of piety (cf. St. John of the Cross, _The Dark Night_, Bk. I, e. 9 ff.).
1073. Spiritual writers make the following recommendations for cases of spiritual desolation: (a) the afflicted persons should understand that the deprivation of former sensible devotion is a sign of G.o.d"s love and has been experienced by the Saints, and should, therefore, possess their souls in peace, leaving to G.o.d the time and manner of His heavenly visitation; (b) they should not burden themselves with new and heavier mortifications, lest they be overcome by too great sorrow, but should go on with their accustomed good works, and realize that, though bitter to them, these works are now all the more pleasing to G.o.d (Ibid., c. 10).
1074. Some Remedies for the Sin of Despair.--(a) If the cause is l.u.s.t, one should learn that spiritual joys are n.o.bler and more enduring than the joys of the flesh, and should take the means to sacrifice the lower in favor of the higher.
(b) If the cause of despair is spiritual sloth, one should meditate on the greatness of G.o.d"s power, mercy and love, and should avoid whatever fosters undue sadness, "lest he be swallowed up with over-much sorrow"
(II Cor., ii. 7). Thus, those who are tormented by the thoughts of past sins or future temptations must subject their scruples to direction, and remember the mercy shown to the good thief, to Magdalene, and other penitents; those who have lost courage because they read spiritual books of a rigorous or terrifying nature, or have been advised to attempt that for which they were unsuited, should seek more prudent instruction and counsel; those who are naturally nervous or melancholy, should employ such therapeutical or preventive measures as are useful or necessary. All should follow the direction of St. Peter to labor the more, that by good works they may make sure their calling and election (II Pet., i. 10).
1075. Presumption is the name given to certain acts of the intellect.
(a) Sometimes it signifies an arrogant self-esteem, as when an ignorant person thinks he is able to dispute with a learned scholar. (b) Sometimes it is a judgment about the affairs of others made rashly or out of fear: "A troubled conscience always presumeth grievous things"
(Wis., xvii. 10). (c) Sometimes it is a conclusion based on probable evidence, and which by jurists is called violent, strong, or weak presumption according to the evidence (see 658).
1076. Presumption is also a name given to various acts of the will. (a) It is used, in a good sense, to signify an excellent confidence or hope, which seems rash according to human standards, but is really well founded, since it rests on the immensity of the divine goodness. Thus, Judith prayed: "O G.o.d of the heavens, Creator of the waters and Lord of the whole creation, hear me a poor wretch, making supplication to Thee, and presuming on Thy mercy" (Jud., ix. 17). Thus, too, Abraham hoped against hope (Rom., iv. 18). (b) Generally, however, the word "presumption" is applied to acts of the will in a bad sense, and indicates the purpose to do what exceeds one"s powers.
1077. Here we are concerned only with presumption as it is an act of the will choosing to do what exceeds one"s power. "Power" may he understood in three ways, and thus there are three kinds of sins all bearing the name of presumption.
(a) If a person chooses to overstep his moral power (i.e., his right of action), he is guilty of the general sin of presumption, which is not a special category of sin, but a circ.u.mstance common to any kind of sin in which one acts with full knowledge, and without subjection to any fear or coercion. Hence, in Canon Law it is said in various places: "If anyone shall presume to transgress" (i.e., if anyone shall coldbloodedly transgress).
(b) If a person wishes to accomplish by his own efforts something so great and difficult that it surpa.s.ses his physical powers, he is guilty of the special sin of presumption that is opposed to the moral virtue of magnanimity or greatness of soul, which attempts great things for which it is suited. Thus, he is presumptuous who undertakes a profession, when he has no sufficient knowledge of its duties (cf.
Luke, xiv. 28 sqq.). This may be called the moral sin of presumption.
(c) If one wishes to obtain through divine aid something that surpa.s.ses even the divine power to confer, one is guilty of the special sin of presumption that is opposed to the theological virtue of hope, which expects from G.o.d only such things as are worthy of G.o.d and as G.o.d has promised. Thus, he who looks forward to a free admission into eternal bliss, without repentance or obedience, does injury both to the character of G.o.d and to the virtue of hope. It is this special sin of presumption that we are now considering. It may be called the theological sin of presumption.
1078. Definition of Presumption.--The theological sin of presumption may be defined as follows: "An act of the will by which one rashly expects to obtain eternal happiness or the means thereto." (a) It is an act of the will, and hence is distinct from intellectual sins, such as disbelief in the justice of G.o.d or the necessity of repentance. (b) It is an act of pleasing expectation, and so differs generically from fear, which is an act of dreadful expectation. (c) It is a rash expectation, and so is specifically opposed to hope, which is well-founded expectation.
1079. The objects of presumption are material and formal.
(a) The material object is eternal happiness and the means thereto, such as forgiveness of sin, observance of the Commandments, etc. This object by extension would include also such extraordinary supernatural gifts as the hypostatic union, equality in glory with the Mother of G.o.d, etc.; for it would be rash to expect against His will what G.o.d has made unique privileges.
(b) The formal object, or motive, of presumption is divine mercy not joined with justice, or divine power not regulated by wisdom, as when one hopes for heaven because one reasons that G.o.d is too merciful to be a just judge of sinners. The motive by extension would include also the unaided power of human nature relied on as equal to the task of working out salvation, as when a man feels so confident of his own virtue and his security against temptation that he thinks he can dispense with prayer and all appointed means of grace and yet save his soul.
Similarly, a person is presumptuous if he feels that it is absolutely impossible for him to be lost, because he has received Baptism or other Sacraments.
1080. Presumption is rash, therefore, for the following reasons: (a) because it leads one to expect what is impossible according to the absolute or ordinary power of G.o.d (e.g., to share in some divine attribute, to sit at the right hand of Christ in glory), or (b) because it makes one expect to obtain supernatural goods in ways other than those ordained by G.o.d (e.g., to obtain forgiveness without repentance, to obtain glory without merits or grace).
1081. The nature of presumption as compared with temptation of G.o.d and blasphemous hope is as follows: (a) they are alike, inasmuch as all three wrongly expect something from G.o.d; (b) they differ, for presumption looks towards salvation and one"s own happiness, whereas temptation of G.o.d seeks rashly some sign from G.o.d as a proof that He is wise, good, powerful, etc., or that the person is innocent, holy, etc., and blasphemous hope expects that G.o.d will help one in working revenge or committing other sin.
1082. The Malice of Presumption.-(a) It is a sin, because it is an act of the will agreeable to false intellectual judgments, namely, that G.o.d will pardon the impenitent or grant eternal life to those who have not labored for it. (b) It is a mortal sin, since it does grave injury to the divine attributes. We cannot hope too much in G.o.d, but we can expect what a perfect G.o.d cannot grant; in this latter respect--that is, in its contempt of G.o.d"s majesty and justice--consists the offense of presumption. (c) It is a sin against the Holy Ghost, because it makes one despise the grace of G.o.d, repentance, etc., as if they were not necessary.
1083. The gravity of presumption as compared with other sins, is as follows:
(a) It is graver than sins against the moral virtues, because it is directly against G.o.d. Thus, theological presumption, being injurious to the power of G.o.d, is a more serious offense than moral presumption, which is an exaggeration of the power of man.
(b) It is less grave than despair, for, while presumption is a disregard of G.o.d"s vindictive justice, despair is a disregard of His mercy, and G.o.d"s vindictive justice is due to the sins of man, His mercy to His own goodness.
(c) Presumption is less grave, therefore, than unbelief and hatred of G.o.d, which, as said above, are more wicked than despair (see 1070).
1084. Presumption and Unbelief.--(a) Presumption is joined with unbelief whenever it proceeds from a speculatively false judgment about matters of faith. Persons, however, who are in error (e.g., Pelagians, Lutherans, Calvinists, etc.), may be in good faith, and hence guiltless of the formal sin of presumption. Examples: Caius expects to win heaven by his own unaided efforts (Pelagian presumption). Balbus expects to be equal in glory to the greatest Saints, and to be saved by the merits of Christ without repentance or observance of the Commandments (Lutheran presumption). t.i.tus expects to be saved on the strength of wearing scapulars, practising certain devotions, or giving alms, while he wholly disregards church duties and important Commandments (Pharisaic presumption). Semp.r.o.nius thinks that all members of his sect are predestined, and hence concerns himself little about the Commandments, being persuaded that all must end well with the elect (Calvinistic presumption).
(b) Presumption is committed without unbelief, when it proceeds from a practical judgment that one should act as if salvation were obtainable without merits or repentance, or as if natural efforts were alone sufficient, although speculatively one does not accept such errors (see 1067). The same is true when presumption springs from a failure to consider the divine justice or the established means of obtaining salvation.
1085. Presumption and Loss of the Virtue of Hope.--(a) Presumption properly so-called (i.e., hope of the impossible) takes away the virtue of hope, for it removes the motive and reasonableness of the virtue; now, the essence of true hope is a reasonable expectation, just as the essence of faith is a.s.sent to divine authority. Hence, he who expects future blessedness unreasonably (i.e., through his own efforts alone or through exaggerated mercy exercised by G.o.d), is not hopeful, but presumptuous.
(b) Presumption improperly so-called (i.e., hope of the uncertain) does not take away the virtue of hope, since it does not remove the motive of hope. Thus, one who commits sin, trusting to go to confession and to make rest.i.tution after he has enjoyed the benefits of wrongdoing, is presumptuous in the sense that he puts himself in a state of sin, for it is uncertain whether the time to repent will be granted him.
However, he is relying on the mercy of G.o.d, which never abandons man during life, and not on his own efforts, or on pardon given freely. He is guilty of a want of charity towards self, and of injustice to his neighbor, rather than of a want of hope.
1086. Presumption properly so-called is a sin rarely committed by Catholics. For (a) the presumption of unbelief is excluded by their faith in the justice of G.o.d and in the necessity of repentance and good works; (b) the presumption that is not the offspring of erroneous doctrines is also unusual, because even those who go on sinning with the expectation of being saved in the end, generally have the purpose of repenting at some future date.
1087. Is a sin worse because committed with the hope that later it will be pardoned? (a) If, at the moment of sin, a person has the intention to continue in sin, though he hopes for pardon, he is guilty of presumption, and his sin is made worse. (b) If he has the intention of sinning, but hopes for pardon, and is resolved to repent later on as a means to pardon, he is not guilty of presumption. The intention not to continue in sin diminishes the sin, for it shows that one is not so strongly attached to evil.
1088. The intention to sin now and repent later varies in malice according to circ.u.mstances.
(a) If the hope of obtaining forgiveness is concomitant as regards the sin now committed--that is, if one sins with the hope, but not because of the hope of pardon-one is less guilty. Example: t.i.tus while on a tour indulges in much drunkenness, because he has the opportunity and is not known; but he intends to repent on his return home.
(b) If the hope of obtaining forgiveness is antecedent as regards the sin--that is, if one sins because of the hope of pardon--one is more guilty. Example: Balbus stays away from Ma.s.s most Sundays, because he reasons with himself that G.o.d is kind and it will be easy to obtain pardon. Caius, when urged to repent, always replies that it will be a simple matter to turn over a new leaf at the hour of death. Semp.r.o.nius goes on multiplying sins from day to day, because he argues that it is just as easy to be pardoned late as early, just as easy to repent of a hundred sins as of ten.
1089. In the following cases presumption is not a grave sin: (a) no mortal sin is committed, if there is not sufficient reflection; for example, a person who is invincibly ignorant of the seriousness of presumption, or who on account of immaturity has exaggerated ideas of his own strength, does not sin gravely if he presumes on G.o.d"s mercy or his own power; (b) no mortal sin is committed, if there is not full consent of the will. For example, t.i.tus is a self-made man, and hence is inclined at times to feel that he can work out even his salvation without any a.s.sistance, but he rids his mind of this presumptuous thought as soon as he takes notice of it.
1090. Are there cases in which presumption and despair are transformed into venial sin, not on account of the imperfect knowledge or consent of the subject, but on account of the slightness of the matter involved? (a) If there is question of presumption and despair properly so-called, they are never venial on account of the lightness of the matter, for the matter, man"s eternal destiny, must always be an affair of the utmost moment. (b) If there is question of presumption and despair in a wider sense, these sins may be venial on account of smallness of matter; for they may be understood with reference to things other than salvation. Examples: t.i.tus despairs of his success in overcoming a habit of arriving late for his meals or of talking too much. Balbus imprudently trusts to his own efforts to get up promptly in the morning, or to fight against some slight distraction in prayer.
1091. The causes of presumption are as follows: (a) the presumption which depends too much on one"s own powers arises from vainglory, for, the more one desires glory, the more is one inclined to attempt things that are above one, especially such as are new and will attract applause; (b) the presumption that depends rashly on divine a.s.sistance seems to result from pride, for a person who desires and expects pardon without repentance, or heaven without merits, must have a very exaggerated opinion of his own importance.
1092. The Commandments of Hope and of Fear.--Since hope is a necessary preparation for justification, and since man should tend towards the supernatural beat.i.tude prepared for him by G.o.d, we cannot be surprised that scripture in many places inculcates the duty of hope.
(a) In the first legislation, given in the Decalogue, neither faith nor hope are enjoined by distinct Commandments, for, unless man already believed and hoped in G.o.d, it would be useless to give him commandments from G.o.d. Hence, in the Decalogue faith and hope are presupposed, faith being enjoined only in so far as it is taught, as when the law begins with the words: "I am the Lord thy G.o.d" (Exod., xx. 2), and hope being prescribed only in so far as promises are added to the precepts, as in the First and Fourth Commandments.
(b) In the later laws there are given distinct commandments about hope, in order to remind man that he must observe not only the law, but also that which the law presupposes. Thus, we read: "Hope in Him, all ye congregation of people" (Ps. lxi. 9); "Charge the rich of this world not to be high-minded, nor to hope in the uncertainty of riches, but in the living G.o.d" (I Tim., vi. 17).
1093. Since acts of hope are obligatory for all adults in this life, the Quietists were in error when they defended disinterested love and absolute holy indifference (Denzinger, 1221 ff., 1327-1349). (a) Hence, man can at times make acts of pure love of G.o.d, in which self is not thought about, or even acts of renunciation of beat.i.tude on condition that that were possible and necessary; but the habitual state of pure love, in which self-interest is entirely lost sight of, cannot be admitted (Philip., iii. 14; II Tim., iv, 8). (b) Indifference to the happenings of life, sin excluded, is good; but it is not lawful to be indifferent about one"s own salvation, or the means thereto.
Indifference about salvation is not holy, but unholy.
1094. Is it lawful to desire to surrender beat.i.tude for the sake of another"s spiritual good? (a) If there is question of beat.i.tude itself, this is not lawful. The prayer of Moses that he be stricken from G.o.d"s book (Exod., x.x.xiii. 31, 32), and of St. Paul that he suffer loss of Messianic benefits (Rom., ix. 3), were only velleities or hyperbolical expressions of their great love for their race. (b) If there is question, not of beat.i.tude itself, but of something that refers to it (such as the time of receiving it, present certainty about its possession), one may be willing to sacrifice this good for the benefit of his neighbor. Thus, St. Martin of Tours was willing to have his entrance into heaven delayed for the sake of his flock (cfr. Philip., i. 22 sqq.), and St. Ignatius Loyola would have preferred to remain uncertain of salvation and labor for souls, rather than to be certain of salvation and die at once.
1095. At what times does the commandment of hope oblige? (a) In its negative, or prohibitory aspect, this commandment obliges for all times and at all times (see 371). Hence, it is not lawful to despair, even when things are darkest, nor to presume, even when they are brightest.
(b) In its affirmative, or preceptive aspect, this commandment obliges for all times, but not at all times. Hence, the law of hope remains always in force, but one is not obliged at every instant to make acts of hope.
1096. By reason of the virtue of hope itself (i.e., on account of the response one should make to the promises of G.o.d concerning eternal life), an act of hope is obligatory on the following occasions: