(b) Sluggishness (_pigritia_) is a tardy performance of duty, and will be considered among the sins opposed to diligence.
(c) Carelessness (_torpor_) is a perfunctory discharge of duties, without thought or love. It is one of the consequences of sloth given above (see 1324), and hence it is a sin against charity.
(d) Indolence is an excessive dislike of labor or exertion, caused by an inordinate love of recreation or bodily rest. It will be considered when we treat the sin of softness or delicacy, which is opposed to fort.i.tude.
(e) Idleness is the actual omission of one"s duty on account of indolence, and hence it is considered among the sins against the various precepts. Thus, under the precepts of charity and of justice will be discussed the omission of labor to which one is bound.
1327. The sin of carelessness about the service of G.o.d is also known as tepidity or lukewarmness. It consists in a want of fervor, and causes one to live in spiritual languor, wishing on the one hand to live holily and avoid sin, but fearing on the other hand the effort and generosity required for the practice of virtue and the struggle against evil. It is, therefore, most dangerous.
(a) Even if it is only internal, it may be more dangerous to the one concerned than grave sin itself, since threats and promises that move a sinner are often unavailing with one who is tepid and moving on to grave sin. Thus, we read: "I know thy works, that thou art neither cold, nor hot. I would that thou wert cold or hot. But because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold, nor hot, I will begin to vomit thee out of my mouth" (Apoc., iii. 15, 16).
(b) If it is external, this sin is a danger to others who witness the disrespectful way in which one prays or exercises other duties owed to G.o.d.
1328. The Sin of Envy.--Envy is a sadness at the good of a neighbor, which one considers as a detriment to one"s own excellence or glory, and therefore as an evil to self.
(a) Envy is a species of sadness, that is, it is a displeasure of the will at the presence of what one regards as an evil. In this way envy differs from the sin of rejoicing at the evils of others, which, as will be said below (see 1342), is one of the consequences of envy, although both are of the same species. Thus also, envy differs from pride and vainglory (which are not aversions but inclinations), and from covetousness (which is the desire of what belongs to another).
(b) Envy is about some good, especially about those goods from which men obtain the esteem and honor of others, such as virtue, ability, rank, success, prosperity. Thus, envy differs from sorrow about evil or the evil effects of good, such as repentance for one"s sins, regret that one is not as good as others, displeasure at the bad use that men make of health or wealth.
(c) Envy is about the good of a neighbor, for only an insane person would feel chagrin at the superiority of G.o.d, and self-envy is a contradiction in terms. Thus, envy differs from sorrow at the good of G.o.d (hatred of G.o.d), and from sorrow at the good of self (sloth). A person may be said, however, to envy G.o.d in the sense that he is mortified at the external glory of G.o.d, if he feels himself an antagonist of that glory. In this way the devil is said to envy the attributes of G.o.d, because they overcome his efforts to promote impiety, and man is said to envy the Holy Ghost, when he is discontented at the progress of holiness in the souls of men.
(d) The envious man considers his neighbor"s good as a detriment to his own good. This is the distinctive trait of envy which sets it apart from other forms of repining at another"s good fortune. Thus, displeasure at the excellence or glory of another without reference to detriment to self is not envy, but hatred; with reference to the unworthiness of another, it is not envy, but indignation.
(e) Hence, envy looks on the neighbor"s prosperity as a calamity to self, as a sort of punishment and the contradiction of one"s own desires. Here envy stands in contrast with mercy, for, while the merciful regard the misfortunes of neighbors as the misfortunes of themselves, the envious regard the prosperity of others as their own misfortune.
1329. The Objects of Envy.--(a) The material objects are many, but they are reduced to excellence and glory. Excellence includes every kind of desirable quality. Glory is the honor, fame and praise that follow on public knowledge of one"s excellence. As a rule, envy is concerned with the excellence of glory, but it may also be about internal or objective excellence. Thus, if two disputants are alone, the less able will perhaps envy the greater knowledge of the more able; but, if there is an audience, the more able will perhaps envy the greater applause received by his less able opponent.
(b) The formal object of envy is one, namely, the detriment to the excellence or glory of self which the envious person sees in the excellence or glory of another. Detriment must not be understood absolutely here, as if the envious person lost something or failed to obtain something on account of the other person. It must be understood relatively, in the sense that the envious person feels that the situation between himself and the other person is no longer the same, that the latter has gained on him or pa.s.sed him, and has thus lessened his excellence.
1330. The Subjects of Envy.--(a) The persons most inclined to envy are of two quite different types, namely, the ambitious and the pusillanimous. The ambitious man ardently covets honors, and he is correspondingly saddened when others surpa.s.s him, especially if he already enjoys repute or is not far removed from the object of his desires. The pusillanimous man, being petty, holds every small advancement of others as great and as a blow to his own prestige. He is, therefore, filled with intense envy, where a different person would see little or no cause for such a feeling. On the contrary, those who recognize their own unsuitability for what is above them, and those who are great of soul, are not so much inclined to envy. There are few, however, even among the most perfect, who are not tempted to envy in some form.
(b) The persons who are most likely to be envied are those who in some way or other are one"s likes or equals, for one does not feel that one is thrown into the shade by a person who is always far above one, or by those who are far removed in time, place, age, etc. Thus, a beggar will envy a fellow-beggar who becomes a millionaire, but not those acquaintances who were always rich, and still less the fortunate persons whom he knows only from hearsay. The elder son envied his brother, not his father (Luke, xv. 28). Many exceptions to this are only apparent. Thus, persons sometimes are envious of those far above them, but it is because these have advanced at their expense, as when a poor person envies those who have the property he once owned. Persons are sometimes envious of their equals who have not surpa.s.sed them, but it is because these latter have obtained with little or no effort what they themselves have gained only by hard work. Persons are sometimes envious of their inferiors, but this is because they make a comparison from some viewpoint in which there is equality, as when an old man envies a youth the advantages that were not enjoyed in his own youth, or the present promotion that surpa.s.ses his own.
1331. It was said above (see 1313) that hatred differs from other sins against charity, inasmuch as it dislikes another"s good unqualifiedly, whereas these other sins dislike his good with some qualification.
Hence, envy differs from hate, because envy is a qualified displeasure.
It differs from other kinds of displeasure over the prosperity of others, because the qualification in each case is different.
(a) Thus, emulation is displeased at the thought of a neighbor"s prosperity, not because it does not like his success, but because it dislikes the unsuccess of self. Example: t.i.tus is grieved when he thinks of the virtue of Balbus, because he himself lacks virtue.
(b) Fear dislikes the prosperity or superiority of another, not on account of the prosperity or superiority in itself, but on account of the evil results it apprehends from that prosperity. Example: Caius is displeased at the elevation of Claudius, because he knows the latter is his enemy and will persecute him. He is also displeased that, in spite of his own greater learning and soundness, he has not the influence possessed by Balbus, who misleads many by long-winded sophistry.
(c) Indignation (_nemesis_) is displeased that a neighbor has a certain good, of which he is unworthy. Example: Semp.r.o.nius is angry because t.i.tus, who is dishonest, succeeds in business.
(d) Envy grieves over a neighbor"s prosperity, not because it thinks this prosperity will actually bring about a lessening of the honor of self, but because it regards the very fact of that prosperity, in itself and apart from any consequences, as a change in one"s relationship to the neighbor, and to that extent an obscuration of the glory of self. Example: Balbus is grieved at the prosperity of Claudius, because he knows Claudius will use his resources to defame him. Caius is grieved at Claudius" prosperity, because he regards it as a reflection on his own fame, since he is less prosperous. Balbus fears, Caius envies.
1332. Is emulation a sin? (a) If emulation is about spiritual things, it is not sinful, but praiseworthy. St. Paul encourages a holy rivalry among the Corinthians for the higher gifts of G.o.d (I Cor., xii. 31).
St. Jerome writes to Lta that her daughter should be a.s.sociated with other girls as fellow-pupils, that the progress of the latter and the praises they receive may act as a spur to the daughter not to be outdone. One who equals or surpa.s.ses the virtue or knowledge of another does not take away or lessen the other"s good, but improves his own good; and thus emulation is not harmful, but beneficial in spiritual matters. (b) If emulation is about temporal things, it is also lawful to be sorry at their absence. But, if the desire is inordinate, then emulation is sinful. Example: Semp.r.o.nius is not inferior in ability to t.i.tus, and hence, while not desiring monopoly or disliking compet.i.tion, he is sorry that he has not attained an equal success in business. Balbus is very deficient in education, in initiative and in character, while Caius excels in all these qualities; and yet Balbus is discontented that he does not hold the responsible position of Caius, or one of equal importance. The emulation of Semp.r.o.nius is reasonable, that of Balbus is unreasonable.
1333. Rivalry is called jealousy, when it proceeds from a love so ardent that it wishes to have exclusive possession of the object loved.
This jealousy is lawful or unlawful, according as the person who loves has or has not exclusive rights.
(a) Jealousy is unlawful in a mother who is vexed because her child loves his father as well as herself. The child ought to love both parents, and it is an evil jealousy that makes the mother grieve when the child does this.
(b) Jealousy is lawful in a wife who grieves because her husband gives to others the affection he promised would be hers alone. Scripture speaks of G.o.d Himself as jealous of the fidelity of His creatures, and declares that He will suffer no rival, but must have sole dominion over the heart (Josue, xxiv. 19 sqq.); and St. Paul tells the Corinthians that he is jealous of them, with the jealousy of G.o.d, because they have not been faithful to his preaching, but have been friendly to false teachers (II Cor., xi).
1334. Is grief at the prosperity of another a sin, when it is caused by fear of the harm he will do?
(a) If it is clear that the other will use his prosperity to act against justice or charity or the like, it is not a sin to grieve over the prosperity. For, since it is right to deprive a neighbor of the means of sinning when one has the power to do so, it is not wrong to wish that he lacked those means. Thus, it is not a sin to grieve over the election of an official who will promote lawbreakers and persecute the law-abiding: "When just men increase, the people shall rejoice; when the wicked shall bear rule, the people shall mourn" (Prov., xxix.
2). St. Gregory the Great declares that, as it is not uncharitable to rejoice at the downfall of an enemy, neither is it envious to be saddened at his success; since his downfall is a blessing to the oppressed, while his success means injustice to many.
(b) If it is clear that the other will use his power, wealth, or other goods to inflict evils that are deserved or not unjust, it is wrong to be sorry that he has the power, wealth, etc., just as it would be wrong to deprive him of them. Thus, it is wrong to grieve over the election of an honest official who will correct abuses and punish lawbreakers.
It is not unlawful, however, for a lawbreaker to be sorry for himself at the prospect of the penalty he will receive.
(c) If it is uncertain whether the other will use his prosperity to do injury to oneself or to others, it is lawful to fear and to be on one"s guard, but it is not lawful to grieve unconditionally at the prosperity, just as it is not lawful in the circ.u.mstances to deprive the other of his prosperity.
1335. Is grief at the prosperity of another sinful, when it is caused by his unworthiness of prosperity? (a) If the indignation could be about spiritual things, of course it would be sinful; but this is not possible, for it is precisely spiritual goods (such as virtues) that make one deserving. Indignation, then, is about temporal goods, which are enjoyed by the bad, as well as the good. (b) If the indignation is about temporal things owned by the wicked, and one grieves that they have prosperity, sin is committed. For it is G.o.d who distributes to the undeserving the goods they have; His purpose is just, namely, that these goods may be for the correction or the punishment of the wicked; those who grieve over the prosperity of the unworthy overlook the fact that eternal goods are a reward to man, temporal goods only a trust to be administered. Hence, the Psalmist says: "Be not emulous of evil-doers, nor envy them that work iniquity, for they shall shortly wither away as gra.s.s" (Ps. x.x.xvi. 1).
1336. Two special cases of sorrow over the prosperity of the wicked must be considered. (a) If one sorrows precisely because the prosperity is had by an undeserving person, and is not thinking of the divine cause and purpose in human affairs, it does not seem that one sins; for, abstracting from Divine Providence, there does appear an unsuitability in the prosperity enjoyed by the wicked, and hence it is something to be sorry about. But such sorrow is at least a preparation for the sin spoken of in the previous paragraph, and so it should be shunned: "My feet were almost moved, my steps had well-nigh slipped, in anger at the wicked, seeing the prosperity of sinners" (Ps. lxxii. 2, 3). (b) If one sorrows precisely because the sinner will use his prosperity in such a way as to become more wicked and to incur chastis.e.m.e.nt, the sorrow is not uncharitable, but charitable.
1337. Sorrow at being surpa.s.sed by another on account of the relative loss of glory to self, with the wish that the other had not the good that makes him superior, is envy, as explained above. This sorrow is a sin. (a) Thus, it is condemned in scripture: "Let us not be made desirous of vainglory, envying one another" (Gal, v. 26); "The patriarchs through envy sold Joseph into Egypt" (Acts, vii. 9), "Charity envieth not" (I Cor., xiii. 4). (b) It is not reasonable to be grieved at the prosperity of others, since prosperity is something good and an object of joy rather than of sorrow.
1338. From its nature envy is a mortal sin. (a) Thus, it is directly opposed to the princ.i.p.al acts of charity, which are love of the neighbor, desire of his good, and joy over his prosperity; and charity is the life of the soul (I John, iii. 14). Secondary acts of charity, such as kissing the sores of a leper, may be omitted without loss of love, but envy destroys love itself. (b) Envy is directly contrary to mercy; for, while mercy grieves at the evil of others, envy grieves at their good. The envious are not merciful, neither are the merciful envious.
1339. Envy is a greater sin than the other kinds of sorrow at a neighbor"s good. (a) Thus, envy grieves over the neighbor"s good (even if he is worthy), and is greater or less in proportion to that good; (b) emulation grieves over one"s own deficiency, fear over the consequences of the other"s good, indignation over the prosperity of one who is unworthy.
1340. Envy is not a mortal sin in the following cases: (a) if the object is not grave, as when one is envious about some trifle (such as good looks); (b) if the subject does not give sufficient reflection or full consent, as when infants are jealous of one another, or adults feel the stirrings of envy. Even holy men are not above the first movements or inclinations towards envy, and very many envious thoughts are not mortal, because not fully adverted to.
1341. Degrees of Gravity in Sins of Envy.--(a) There are no different species of envy of the neighbor, for all acts of envy have the one essential trait that they are sorrow over the excellence of another, viewed, not absolutely in itself, but relatively as a lessening of one"s own excellence. We should distinguish, however, the envy which is a sin against G.o.d (viz., envy at another"s spiritual good, or sorrow at the diffusion of grace) from the envy which is a sin against the neighbor.
(b) There are different degrees of envy within the species, according to the greater or less excellence of the good which is envied. Thus, it is a greater sin to be envious about spiritual things (e.g., another"s influence for good) than about temporal things (e.g., another"s ability to get money); it is a greater sin to be envious about the wellbeing of the body than about dress, style, etc.
1342. Envy is one of the capital vices, that is, it is an evil tree which from its very nature yields the evil fruits of other sins. The fruits of envy are progressive in evil.
(a) Thus, in the beginning of envy, one tries to diminish the glory of the person one envies, either secretly (sin of whispering) or openly (sin of detraction).
(b) In its progress, envy rejoices at the adversity of the neighbor, if its attempt to injure succeeds; or it sorrows over his continued prosperity, if its effort at blackening has failed. Rejoicing at a neighbor"s adversity is not different specifically from envy; but the affliction over the neighbor"s prosperity now spoken of is of the same species as the vice which sought to undermine the neighbor. Thus, if the envious person resorted in vain to detraction, his grief at the failure of his efforts is in guilt a sin of detraction.
(c) In its consummation, envy becomes hatred, as was said above on the causes of hate (see 1316).
1343. Envy is not the first of the seven capital vices. (a) Thus, it is caused by pride, for one who inordinately desires his own excellence will easily grieve over what he regards as the lessening of that excellence by the excellence of another. (b) It is caused by vainglory, for one who inordinately longs for fame and honors, will easily be grieved over the fame and honors enjoyed by others.
1344. In what way is envy preeminent among sins? (a) Envy is not the most enormous vice, for, as said above (see 1301), hatred of G.o.d is from its nature the worst of all sins. But there is one kind of envy--namely, envy of a brother"s spiritual good--which has a place among those gravest offenses called "sins against the Holy Ghost" (see 899).
(b) Envy is most like to the sin that brought all woe into the world, for "by the envy of the devil death entered the world" (Wis., ii. 24).
It was sorrow at the gifts bestowed upon our first parents that moved the demon to tempt them, and accordingly his envy led to their fall and to the loss of original justice by the Whole race.
1345. Useful Considerations against Envy.--(a) Envy is useless, since it does not obtain that on which one"s heart is set, or obtains it only by the sacrifice of charity, which is something better. (b) Envy is harmful, since it carries its own torment with it (Gen., iv. 5; Wis., vi. 25; Prov., xiv. 30), and brings on many sins against the neighbor.
Through envy the first murder was committed (Gen., iv. 8), and it was envy that brought about the crucifixion of Christ (Matt, xxvii. 18).