6 AUGUST.--Supplies are renewed with two Phaneropterae. One is consumed entirely; the other is bitten into.
7 August.--To-day"s ration is tasted and then abandoned. The larva seems uneasy. With its pointed mouth it explores the walls of its chamber.
This sign denotes the approach of the time for making the coc.o.o.n.
8 AUGUST.--During the night the larva has spun its silken eel-trap. It is now encrusting it with grains of sand. Then follow, in due time, the normal phases of the metamorphosis. Fed on Locustidae, a diet unknown to its race, the larva pa.s.ses through its several stages without any more difficulty than its brothers and sisters fed on Flies.
I obtained the same success in offering young Mantes for food. One of the larvae thus served would even incline me to believe that it preferred the new dish to the traditional diet of its race. Two Eristales, or Drone-flies, and a Praying Mantis an inch long composed its daily allowance. The Drone-flies are disdained from the first mouthful; and the Mantis, already tasted and apparently found excellent, causes the Fly to be completely forgotten. Is this an epicure"s preference, due to the greater juiciness of the flesh? I am not in a position to say. At all events, the Bembex is not so infatuated with Fly as to refuse to abandon it for other game.
The failure which I foresaw has proved a magnificent success. It is fairly convincing, is it not? Without the evidence of experiment, what can we rely upon? Beneath the ruins of so many theories which appeared to be most solidly erected I should hesitate to admit that two and two make four if the facts were not before me. My argument had the most tempting probability on its side, but it had not the truth. As it is always possible to find reasons after the event in support of an opinion which one would not at first admit, I should now argue as follows:
The plant is the great factory in which are elaborated, with mineral materials, the organic principles which are the materials of life.
Certain products are common to the whole vegetable series, but others, far less numerous, are prepared in special laboratories. Each genus, each species has its trade-mark. Here essential oils are manufactured; here alkaloids; here starches, fatty substances, resins, sugars, acids.
Hence result special energies, which do not suit every herbivorous animal. It a.s.suredly requires a stomach made expressly for the purpose to digest aconite, colchic.u.m, hemlock or henbane; those who have not such a stomach could never endure a diet of that sort. Besides, the Mithridates fed on poison resist only a single toxin. (Mithridates VI.
King of Pontus (d. B.C. 63) is said to have secured immunity from poison by taking increased doses of it.--Translator"s Note.) The caterpillar of the Death"s-head Hawk-moth, which delights in the solanin of the potato, would be killed by the acrid principle of the t.i.thymals that form the food of the Spurge-caterpillar. The herbivorous larvae are therefore perforce exclusive in their tastes, because different genera of vegetables possess very different properties.
With this variety in the products of the plant, the animal, a consumer far more than a producer, contrasts the uniformity in its own products.
The alb.u.men in the egg of the Ostrich or the Chaffinch, the casein in the milk of the Cow or the a.s.s, the muscular flesh of the Wolf or the Sheep, the Screech-owl or the Field-mouse, the Frog or the Earth-worm: these remain alb.u.men, casein or fibrin, edible if not eaten. Here are no excruciating condiments, no special acridities, no alkaloids fatal to any stomach other than that of the appointed consumer; so that animal food is not confined to one and the same eater. What does not man eat, from that delicacy of the arctic regions, soup made of Seal"s blood and a sc.r.a.p of Whale-blubber wrapped in a willow-leaf for a vegetable, to the Chinaman"s fried Silk-worm or the Arab"s dried Locust? What would he not eat, if he had not to overcome the repugnance dictated by habit rather than by actual necessity? The prey being uniform in its nutritive principles, the carnivorous larva ought to accommodate itself to any sort of game, above all if the new dish be not too great a departure from consecrated usage. Thus should I argue, with no less probability on my side, had I to begin all over again. But, as all our arguments have not the value of a single fact, I should be forced in the end to resort to experiment.
I did so the next year, on a larger scale and with a greater variety of subjects. I shrink from a continuous narrative of my experiments and of my personal education in this new art, where the failure of one day taught me the way to succeed on the morrow. It would be long and tedious. Enough if I briefly state my results and the conditions which must be fulfilled in order to run the delicate refectory as it should be run.
And, first, we must not dream of detaching the egg from its natural prey to lay it on another. The egg adheres pretty firmly, by its cephalic pole, to the quarry. To remove it from its place would inevitably jeopardize its future. I therefore let the larva hatch and acquire sufficient strength to bear the removal without peril. For that matter, my excavations most often provide me with my subjects in the form of larvae. I adopt for rearing-purposes the larvae that are a quarter to a half developed. The others are too young and risky to handle, or too old and limited to a short period of artificial feeding.
Secondly, I avoid bulky heads of game, a single one of which would suffice for the whole growing-stage. I have already said and I here repeat how nice a matter it is to consume a victim which has to keep fresh for a couple of weeks and not to finish dying until it is almost entirely devoured. Death here leaves no corpse; when life is extinct, the body has disappeared, leaving only a shred of skin. Larvae with only one large prey have a special art of eating, a dangerous art, in which a clumsy bite would prove fatal. If bitten before the proper time at such a point, the victim becomes putrid, which promptly causes death by poisoning in the consumer. When diverted from its plan of attack, deprived of its clue, the larva is not always able to rediscover the lawful morsels in good time and is killed by the decomposition of its badly dissected prey. What will happen if the experimenter gives it a game to which it is not accustomed? Not knowing how to eat it according to rule, the larva will kill it; and by next day the victuals will have become so much toxic putrescence. I have already told how I found it impossible to rear the Two-banded Scolia on Oryctes-larvae, fastened down to deprive them of movement, or even on Ephippigers, paralysed by the Languedocian Sphex. In both cases the new diet was accepted without hesitation, a proof that it suited the nurseling; but in a day or two putrescence supervened and the Scolia perished on the fetid morsel. The method of preserving the Ephippiger, so well known to the Sphex, was unknown to my boarder; in this was enough to convert a delicious food into poison.
Even so did my other attempts miscarry wretchedly, attempts at feeding with the single dish consisting of one big head of game to replace the normal ration. Only one success is recorded in my notebooks, but that was so difficult that I would not undertake to obtain it a second time.
I succeeded in feeding the larva of the Hairy Ammophila with an adult black Cricket, who was accepted as readily as the natural game, the caterpillar.
To avoid putrefaction of victuals which last overlong and are not consumed according to the method indispensable to their preservation, I employ small game, each piece of which can be finished by the larva at a single sitting, or at most in a single day. It matters little then that the victim is slashed and dismembered at random; decomposition has no time to seize upon its still quivering tissues. This is the procedure of those larvae which gulp down their food, snapping at random without distinguishing one part from another, such as the Bembex-larvae, which finish the Fly into which they have bitten before beginning another in the heap, or the Cerceris-larvae, which drain their Weevils methodically one after another. With the first strokes of the mandibles the victim broached may be mortally wounded. This is no disadvantage: a brief spell suffices to make use of the corpse, which is saved from putrefaction by being promptly consumed. Close beside it, the other victims, quite alive though motionless, await their respective turns and supply reserves of victuals which are always fresh.
I am too unskilful a butcher to imitate the Wasp and myself to resort to paralysis; moreover, the caustic liquid injected into the nerve-centres, ammonia in particular, would leave traces of smell or flavour which might put off my boarders. I am therefore compelled to deprive my insects of the power of movement by killing them outright. This makes it impracticable to provide a sufficiency of provisions beforehand in a single supply: while one item of the ration was being consumed the rest would spoil. One expedient alone remains to me, one which entails constant attendance: it is to renew the provisions each day. When all these conditions are fulfilled, the success of artificial feeding is still not without its difficulties; nevertheless, with a little care and above all plenty of patience, it is almost certain.
It was thus that I reared the Tarsal Bembex, which eats Anthrax-flies and other Diptera, on young Locustidae or Mantidae; the Silky Ammophila, whose diet consists chiefly of Measuring-worms, on small Spiders; the pot-making Pelopaeus, a Spider-eater, on tender Acridians; the Sand Cerceris, a pa.s.sionate lover of Weevils, on Halicti; the Bee-eating Philanthus, which feeds exclusively on Hive-bees, on Eristales and other Flies. Without succeeding in my final aim, for reasons which I have just explained, I have seen the Two-banded Scolia feasting greedily on the grub of the Oryctes, which was subst.i.tuted for that of the Cetonia, and putting up with an Ephippiger taken from the burrow of the Sphex; I have been present at the repast of three Hairy Ammophilae accepting with an excellent appet.i.te the Cricket that replaced their caterpillar. One of them, as I have related, contrived to keep its ration fresh, which enabled it to reach its full development and to spin its coc.o.o.n.
These examples, the only ones to which my experiments have extended hitherto, seem to me sufficiently convincing to allow me to conclude that the carnivorous larva does not have exclusive tastes. The ration supplied to it by the mother, so monotonous, so limited in quality, might be replaced by others equally to its taste. Variety does not displease the larva; it does it as much good as uniformity; indeed, it would be of greater benefit to the race, as we shall see presently.
CHAPTER 8. A DIG AT THE EVOLUTIONISTS.
To rear a caterpillar-eater on a skewerful of Spiders is a very innocent thing, unlikely to compromise the security of the State; it is also a very childish thing, as I hasten to confess, and worthy of the schoolboy who, in the mysteries of his desk, seeks as best he may some diversion from the fascinations of his exercise in composition. And I should not have undertaken these investigations, still less should I have spoken them, not without some satisfaction, if I had not discerned, in the results obtained in my refectory, a certain philosophic import, involving, so it seemed to me, the evolutionary theory.
It is a.s.suredly a majestic enterprise, commensurate with man"s immense ambitions, to seek to pour the universe into the mould of a formula and submit every reality to the standard of reason. The geometrician proceeds in this manner: he defines the cone, an ideal conception; then he intersects it by a plane. The conic section is submitted to algebra, an obstetrical appliance which brings forth the equation; and behold, entreated now in one direction, now in another, the womb of the formula gives birth to the ellipse, the hyperbola, the parabola, their foci, their radius vectors, their tangents, their normals, their conjugate axes, their asymptotes and the rest. It is magnificent, so much so that you are overcome by enthusiasm, even when you are twenty years old, an age hardly adapted to the austerities of mathematics. It is superb. You feel as if you were witnessing the creation of a world.
As a matter of fact, you are merely observing the same idea from different points of view, which are illumined by the successive phases of the transformed formula. All that algebra unfolds for our benefit was contained in the definition of the cone, but it was contained as a germ, under latent forms which the magic of the calculus converts into explicit forms. The gross value which our mind confided to the equation it returns to us, without loss or gain, in coins stamped with every sort of effigy. And here precisely is that which const.i.tutes the inflexible rigour of the calculus, the luminous certainty before which every cultivated mind is forced to bow. Algebra is the oracle of the absolute truth, because it reveals nothing but what the mind had hidden in it under an amalgam of symbols. We put 2 and 2 into the machine; the rollers work and show us 4. That is all.
But to this calculus, all-powerful so long as it does not leave the domain of the ideal, let us submit a very modest reality: the fall of a grain of sand, the pendular movement of a hanging body. The machine no longer works, or does so only by suppressing almost everything that is real. It must have an ideal material point, an ideal rigid thread, an ideal point of suspension; and then the pendular movement is translated by a formula. But the problem defies all the artifices of a.n.a.lysis if the oscillating body is a real body, endowed with volume and friction; if the suspensory thread is a real thread, endowed with weight and flexibility; if the point of support is a real point, endowed with resistance and capable of deflection. So with other problems, however simple. The exact reality escapes the formula.
Yes, it would be a fine thing to put the world into an equation, to a.s.sume as the first principle a cell filled with alb.u.men and by transformation after transformation to discover life under its thousand aspects as the geometrician discovers the ellipse and the other curves by examining his conic section. Yes, it would be magnificent and enough to add a cubit to our stature. Alas, how greatly must we abate our pretensions! The reality is beyond our reach when it is only a matter of following a grain of dust in its fall; and we would undertake to ascend the river of life and trace it to its source! The problem is a more arduous one than that which algebra declines to solve. There are formidable unknown quant.i.ties here, more difficult to decipher than the resistances, the deflections and the frictions of the pendulum. Let us eliminate them, that we may more easily propound the theory.
Very well; but then my confidence in this natural history which repudiates nature and gives ideal conceptions precedence over real facts is shaken. So, without seeking the opportunity, which is not my business, I take it when it presents itself; I examine the theory of evolution from every side; and, as that which I have been a.s.sured is the majestic dome of a monument capable of defying the ages appears to me to be no more than a bladder, I irreverently dig my pin into it.
Here is the latest dig. Adaptability to a varied diet is an element of well-being in the animal, a factor of prime importance for the extension and predominance of its race in the bitter struggle for life. The most unfortunate species would be that which depended for its existence on a diet so exclusive that no other could replace it. What would become of the Swallow if he required, in order to live, one particular Gnat, a single Gnat, always the same? When once this Gnat had disappeared--and the life of the Mosquito is not a long one--the bird would die of starvation. Fortunately for himself and for the happiness of our homes, the Swallow gulps them all down indiscriminately, together with a host of other insects that perform aerial ballets. What would become of the Lark were his gizzard able to digest only one seed, invariably the same?
When the season for this seed was over--and the season is always a short one--the haunter of the furrows would perish.
Is not man"s complaisant stomach, adapted to the largest variety of nourishment, one of his great zoological privileges? He is thus rendered independent of climates, seasons and lat.i.tudes. And the Dog: how is it that of all the domestic animals he alone is able to accompany us everywhere, even on the most arduous expeditions? The Dog again is omnivorous and therefore a cosmopolitan.
The discovery of a new dish, said Brillat-Savarin, is of greater importance to humanity than the discovery of a new planet. The aphorism is nearer to the truth than it appears to be in its humorous form.
Certainly the man who was the first to think of crushing wheat, kneading flour and cooking the paste between two hot stones was more deserving than the discoverer of the two-hundredth asteroid. The invention of the potato is certainly as valuable as that of Neptune, glorious as the latter was. All that increases our alimentary resources is a discovery of the first merit. And what is true of man cannot be other than true of animals. The world belongs to the stomach which is independent of specialities. This truth is of the kind that has only to be stated to be proved.
Let us now return to our insects. If I am to believe the evolutionists, the various game-hunting Wasps are descended from a small number of types, which are themselves derived, by an incalculable number of concatenations, from a few amoebae, a few monera and lastly from the first clot of protoplasm which was casually condensed. Let us not go back as far as that; let us not plunge into the fogs where illusion and error too easily find a lurking-place. Let us consider a subject with exact limits to it; this is the only way to understand one another.
The Sphegidae are descended from a single type, which itself was already a highly-developed descendant and, like its successors, fed its family on prey. The close similarity in form, in colouring and, above all, in habits seem to refer the Tachytes to the same origin. This is ample; let us be satisfied with it. And now please tell me, what did this prototype of the Sphegidae hunt? Was its diet varied or uniform? If we cannot decide, let us examine the two cases.
The diet was varied. I heartily congratulate the first born of the Sphex-wasps. She enjoyed the most favourable conditions for leaving a prosperous offspring. Accommodating herself to any kind of prey not disproportionate to her strength, she avoided the dearth of a given species of game at this or that time and in this or that place; she always found the wherewithal to endow her family magnificently, they being, for that matter, fairly indifferent to the nature of the victuals, provided that these consisted of fresh insect-flesh, as the tastes of their cousins many times removed prove to this day. This matriarch of the Sphex clan bore within herself the best chances of a.s.suring victory to her offspring in that pitiless fight for existence which eliminates the weakly and incapable and allows none but the strong and industrious to survive; she possessed an apt.i.tude of great value which atavism could not fail to hand down and which her descendants, who are greatly interested in preserving this magnificent inheritance, must have permanently adopted and even accentuated from one generation to the next, from one branch, one offshoot, to another.
Instead of this unscrupulously omnivorous race, levying booty upon every kind of game, to its very great advantage, what do we see to-day? Each Sphex is stupidly limited to an unvarying diet; she hunts only one kind of prey, though her larva accepts them all. One will have nothing but the Ephippiger and must have a female at that; another will have nothing but the Cricket. This one hunts the Locust and nothing else; that one the Mantis and the Empusa. Yet another is addicted to the Grey Worm and another to the Looper.
Fools! How great was your mistake in allowing the wise eclecticism of your ancestress, whose relics now repose in the hard mud of some lacustrian stratum, to become obsolete! How much better would things be for you and yours! Abundance is a.s.sured; painful and often fruitless searches are avoided; the larder is crammed without being subject to the accidents of time, place and climate. When Ephippigers run short, you fall back upon Crickets; when there are no Crickets, you capture Gra.s.shoppers. But no, my beautiful Sphex-wasps, you were not such fools as that. If in our days you are each confined to a standing family-dish, it is because your ancestress of the lacustrian schists never taught you variety.
Could she have taught you uniformity? Let us suppose that the Sphex of antiquity, a novice in the gastronomic art, prepared her potted meats with a single kind of game, no matter what. It was then her descendants who, subdivided into groups and const.i.tuted into so many distinct species by the slow travail of the centuries, realized that in addition to the ancestral fare there existed a host of other foods. Tradition being abandoned, there was nothing to guide their choice. They therefore tried a bit of everything in the way of insect game, at hap-hazard; and each time the larva, whose tastes alone had to be consulted, was satisfied with the food supplied, as it is to-day in the refectory provisioned by my care.
Every attempt led to the invention of a new dish, an important event, according to the masters, an inestimable resource for the family, who were thereby delivered from the menace of death and enabled to thrive over large areas whence the absence or rarity of a uniform game would have excluded it. And, after making use of a host of different viands in order to attain the culinary variety which is to-day adopted by the whole of the Sphex nation, lo and behold, each species confines itself to a single sort of game, outside which every specimen is obstinately refused, not at table, of course, but in the hunting-field! By your experiments, from age to age, to have discovered variety in diet; to have practised it, to the great advantage of your race, and to end up with uniformity, the cause of decadence; to have known the excellent and to repudiate it for the middling: oh, my Sphex-wasps, it would be stupid if the theory of evolution were correct!
To avoid insulting you and also from respect for common sense, I prefer therefore to believe that, if in our days you confine your hunting to a single kind of game, it is because you have never known any other. I prefer to believe that your common ancestress, your precursor, whether her tastes were simple or complex, is a pure chimera, for, if they were any relationship between you, having tested everything in order to arrive at the actual food of each species, having eaten everything and found it grateful to the stomach, you would now, from first to last, be unprejudiced consumers, omnivorous progressives. I prefer to believe, in short, that the theory of evolution is powerless to explain your diet.
This is the conclusion drawn from the dining-room installed in my old sardine-box.
CHAPTER 9. RATIONING ACCORDING TO s.e.x.
Considered in respect of quality, the food has just disclosed our profound ignorance of the origins of instinct. Success falls to the bl.u.s.terers, to the imperturbable dogmatists, from whom anything is accepted if only they make a little noise. Let us discard this bad habit and admit that really, if we go to the bottom of things, we know nothing about anything. Scientifically speaking, nature is a riddle to which human curiosity finds no definite solution. Hypothesis follows hypothesis; the theoretical rubbish-heap grows bigger and bigger; and still truth escapes us. To know how to know nothing might well be the last word of wisdom.
Considered in respect of quant.i.ty, the food sets us other problems, no less obscure. Those of us who devote ourselves a.s.siduously to studying the customs of the game-hunting Wasps soon find our attention arrested by a very remarkable fact, at the time when our mind, refusing to be satisfied with sweeping generalities, which our indolence too readily makes shift with, seeks to enter as far as possible into the secret of the details, so curious and sometimes so important, as and when they become better-known to us. This fact, which has preoccupied me for many a long year, is the variable quant.i.ty of the provisions packed into the burrow as food for the larva.
Each species is scrupulously faithful to the diet of its ancestors. For more than a quarter of a century I have been exploring my district; and I have never known the diet to vary. To-day, as thirty years ago, each huntress must have the game which I first saw her pursuing. But, though the nature of the victuals is constant, the quant.i.ty is not so. In this respect the difference is so great that he would need to be a very superficial observer who should fail to perceive it on his first examination of the burrows. In the beginning, this difference, involving two, three, four times the quant.i.ty and more, perplexed me extremely and led me to the conclusions which I reject to-day.
Here, among the instances most familiar to me, are some examples of these variations in the number of victims provided for the larva, victims, of course, very nearly identical in size. In the larder of the Yellow-winged Sphex, after the victualling is completed and the house shut up, two or three Crickets are sometimes found and sometimes four. Stizus ruficornis (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter 20; also "Bramble-bees and Others": chapter 9.--Translator"s Note.), established in some vein of soft sandstone, places three Praying Mantes in one cell and five in another. Of the caskets fashioned by Amedeus" Eumenes (Cf.
"The Mason-wasps": chapter 1.--Translator"s Note.) out of clay and bits of stone, the more richly endowed contain ten small caterpillars, the more poorly furnished five. The Sand Cerceris (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter 2.--Translator"s Note.) will sometimes provide a ration of eight Weevils and sometimes one of twelve or even more. My notes abound in abstracts of this kind. It is unnecessary for the purpose in hand to quote them all. It will serve our object better if I give the detailed inventory of the Bee-eating Philanthus and of the Mantis-hunting Tachytes, considered especially with regard to the quant.i.ty of the victuals.
The slayer of Hive-bees is frequently in my neighbourhood; and I can obtain from her with the least trouble the greatest number of data. In September I see the bold filibuster flying from clump to clump of the pink heather pillaged by the Bee. The bandit suddenly arrives, hovers, makes her choice and swoops down. The trick is done: the poor worker, with her tongue lolling from her mouth in the death-struggle, is carried through the air to the underground den, which is often a very long way from the spot of the capture. The trickling of earthy refuse, on the bare banks, or on the slopes of footpaths, instantly reveals the dwellings of the ravisher; and, as the Philanthus always works in fairly populous colonies, I am able, by noting the position of the communities, to make sure of fruitful excavations during the forced inactivity of winter.
The sapping is a laborious task, for the galleries run to a great depth.
Favier wields the pick and spade; I break the clods which he brings down and open the cells, whose contents--coc.o.o.ns and remnants of provisions--I at once pour into a little screw of paper. Sometimes, when the larva is not developed, the stack of Bees is intact; more often the victuals have been consumed; but it is always possible to tell the number of items provided. The heads, abdomens and thoraxes, emptied of their fleshy substance and reduced to the tough outer skin, are easily counted. If the larva has chewed these overmuch, the wings at least are left; these are sapless organs which the Philanthus absolutely scorns.
They are likewise spared by moisture, putrefaction and time, so much so that it is no more difficult to take an inventory of a cell several years old than one of a recent cell. The essential thing is not to overlook any of these tiny relics while placing them in the paper bag, amid the thousand incidents of the excavation. The rest of the work will be done in the study, with the aid of the lens, taking the remains heap by heap; the wings will be separated from the surrounding refuse and counted in sets of four. The result will give the amount of the provisions. I do not recommend this task to any one who is not endowed with a good stock of patience, nor above all to any one who does not start with the conviction that results of great interest are compatible with very modest means.
My inspection covers a total of one hundred and thirty-six cells, which are divided as in the table below:
2 cells each containing 1 Bee 52 cells each containing 2 Bees 36 cells each containing 3 Bees 36 cells each containing 4 Bees 9 cells each containing 5 Bees 1 cell containing 6 Bees --- 136