Truly a marvellous picture of the effect of a fugue in a great medieval cathedral!
CHAPTER IV
THE MUSICAL SENTENCE
Before pa.s.sing on to an explanation of the fundamental types of musical structure, we must give some idea of the const.i.tuent parts of the _Period_ in music. Every art has its units of expression: the straight line, the curve, the arch, the poetic stanza and the prose sentence. Just as poetry and prose are a series of stanzas or sentences, so a musical composition is a succession of definitely organized portions of thought and emotion, in terms of rhythm and sound. In the heart of a composition, to be sure, we often find a great freedom in the phraseology, comparable to blank verse or to a rhapsodic kind of prose; but with few exceptions, such as a Fantasie, every composition always _begins_ with one or two periods which, in regard to subdivision, balance and directness of statement, are carefully planned and are complete in themselves. Before it is possible to follow intelligently the structure of a musical sentence we must gain a clear idea of what is meant by the frequently used terms Tonality and Modulation. Since the evolution and acceptance of our three modern scales:[44] the major, the minor and the chromatic--which gained their sanction chiefly through the investigations and compositions of Bach and Rameau--every melody and the accompanying harmony are said to be in a certain "tonality" (or "key") which takes its name from the first tone of the scale in question, _e.g._, C, E-flat, F sharp, etc. Hence this first tone is called the Tonic or chief tone and from it ascend the other tones of the scale. That is, a melody in E-flat major will employ only those tones found in the scale of E-flat major, and is said to be in that "key," or "tonality." The same would be true of the harmony involved, _i.e._, the chords would consist of combinations of the different tones of this scale. When a melody, as is often the case, employs tones _not_ found in the scale in question, these are called _chromatic_[45] changes, and may or may not effect a "modulation" or departure into another key, _e.g._
[Music]
[Footnote 44: It is a.s.sumed that the music-lover has, as his birthright, an instinctive knowledge of the grouping of tones and semitones in our modern scales. Those who may wish to refresh their knowledge are recommended to the second Chapter in Foote and Spalding"s _Harmony_, and to the chapter on Scales in Parry"s _Evolution of the Art of Music_.]
[Footnote 45: Color in music is brought about chiefly through their use.]
The most important means of gaining unity and coherence in a composition is to have it written in a clearly defined tonality, especially at the outset. This definite tonality is the "centre of gravity," so to speak, about which the whole composition revolves. If this tonal centre were uncertain or wandering, we should have a feeling of vagueness and perplexity which, except for special dramatic effect, is never found in works of the great composers. Thus we speak of a Symphony in C minor, of a Quartet in F major and of a Sonata in B-flat minor;[46] this foundation key being comparable to the basic color-scheme of a painting. There is also a particular aesthetic effect and color-appeal a.s.sociated with each key; and the listener should train himself to be sensitive to the brilliance of such keys as D major and E major, the richness of B major, the dignity of E-flat major, the almost cloying sweetness of D-flat major and of G-flat major and the tragic depth of B minor and G minor. No piece, however, should remain for long in the same key; for music cuts so deeply into the consciousness that there would result an intolerable monotony.[47]
Even in the simplest folk-songs, therefore, we often find manifested an instinct for those changes of tonal centre which are technically called "Modulations." All the keys founded on the twelve semitones of the chromatic scale are related--though in varying degrees of closeness; and in modern music, no matter how complex the modulations often sound, we may be sure that the composer plans them as carefully as the painter adjusts his color-scheme. For definite acoustical[48]
and harmonic reasons, however, the keys most closely related to a given tonal centre are those situated a perfect fifth above--the Dominant; a perfect fifth below--the Subdominant; and the Relative Minor, the key-note of which is a minor third below, _e.g._, A minor in relation to C major, C minor to E-flat major. The relative minors of the Dominant and Subdominant also bear a close relationship to a given tonic; and into these _five_ keys is made a large majority of the modulations in any piece of music.[49]
[Music:
Subdominant Tonic Dominant
Relative Relative Relative Minor Minor Minor]
[Footnote 46: As for example the famous one of Chopin.]
[Footnote 47: Even great composers have at times made this mistake, _e.g._, Mendelssohn in the first movement of the _Scotch Symphony_, where the interminable length of the portion in A minor (of all keys!) is simply deadening in its effect. Compare also the _Prelude to the Rheingold_; where, however--for dramatic purposes--to depict the world as "without form and void" Wagner remains in the key of E-flat major for some 150 measures!]
[Footnote 48: It is left to the teacher to explain, by the ratios found in the overtones of the Harmonic Series, the validity of this statement.]
[Footnote 49: Some modern theorists, _e.g._, Calvacoressi (see the New Music Review for September, 1909) have thought that the dominant relationship was "overworked." It is true that the great charm of modern music is its freedom and boldness in modulation; but the dominant keys can never be entirely abandoned, for the relationship between them and a tonic is as elemental as that between the colors of the spectroscope.]
Beginning with Beethoven, a modulation into what are known as the _mediant_ keys became frequent; and is, in fact, a favorite change in all modern music--the mediant keys being those situated half-way between a Tonic and Dominant or a Tonic and Subdominant, _e.g._
[Music: Sub-mediant Mediant]
Anyone at all familiar with Beethoven"s style will remember how often his second theme, instead of following the more conventional line of dominant relationship, is in a mediant key. Good examples may be found in the first movement of the _Waldstein Sonata_ and in the first and last movements of the 8th Symphony. A little thought will make clear that the relationships just set forth include nearly all the possible ones save those of 2nds and 7ths. Even into these apparently distant keys, _e.g._, to D-flat major or to B major from C major, modulations may easily be made by means of the "enharmonic"[50] relationship found in that frequently used modern chord--the Augmented Sixth, _e.g._
[Music: C major B major C major D-flat major]
[Footnote 50: Two tones are said to be "enharmonic" when, although written differently, they sound the same on an instrument of fixed temperament like the pianoforte, or organ, _e.g._, D-sharp and E-flat, E and F-flat. A violin, however, can make a distinction between such notes and often does.]
Next to rhythm, modulation is the most stimulating and enchanting element in music. No composition of any scope can be considered truly great unless it abounds in beautiful modulations. Certain composers, to be sure, have in this respect more genius than others--notably Schubert, Chopin, Wagner and Franck whose music seems to waft us along on a magic carpet of delight. But just as Unity depends upon a definite basic tonality, so Variety is gained by this very freedom of modulation. Without it is monotony; with too much modulation, an irritating restlessness. By the perfect balance in his works of these two related elements a genius may be definitely recognized.
The simplest and on the whole most frequent type of musical sentence or period consists of eight measures, subdivided into two balancing phrases of four measures[51] each--the component parts plainly indicated by various cadences and endings soon to be explained. These four-measure phrases are often, though not invariably, still further subdivided into two sections of two measures each. Let us now corroborate these statements by an examination of the opening sentence of the Scherzo of Beethoven"s _Second Sonata for Pianoforte_. This concise sentence is an epitome of the chief principles of organic musical expression. At the outset[52] we see the leading motive, which consists of an ascending broken chord twice repeated. We see also
[Music]
the first phrase of 4 measures and the second phrase[53] of similar length, alike subdivided into two sections of 2 measures each. In the third measure we find a modulation into the dominant key (indicated by the D-sharp) and in the fourth measure a cadence with a feminine ending in this key. The second--or after--phrase corresponds exactly to what has gone before: we have the same repet.i.tion of the motive in a different part of the scale; and finally, in the 8th measure, a cadence in the home key, also with feminine ending.
[Footnote 51: This a.s.sertion holds for most of our Western European music; though in Hungarian and Scotch music we find a natural fondness for phrases of _three_ measures, and the Croatians are known for their phrases of _five_ measures so often used by both Haydn and Schubert.
But it is true that we _tend_ to think in groups which are some multiple of 2, _i.e._, either 4, 8, 12 or 16 measures.]
[Footnote 52: Always count the first _complete_ measure as _one_.]
[Footnote 53: The two phrases are often designated Thesis and Ant.i.thesis.]
[Music]
When the sentence is played, it is evident how unsatisfactory would be the effect if a complete stop were attempted at the 4th measure; and how symmetrical and convincing is the impression when the eight measures are considered an unbroken sweep of musical thought.[54]
There are, in fact, a few complete compositions in musical literature which contain but a single sentence of eight measures. As an example may be cited the song from Schumann"s _Lieder Alb.u.m fur Jugend_, op.
79, No. 1. (See Supplement No. 19.) For purposes of practical appreciation[55] it is enough to state that a cadence is an accepted combination of chords (generally the tonic, dominant and subdominant) which indicates that some objective, either temporary or final, has been reached. When the dominant chord or any dominant harmony is immediately followed by the tonic the cadence is called perfect or final, and may be compared to a period in punctuation, _e.g._
[Music] [Music: CeSAR FRANCK]
[Footnote 54: In listening to a clock it is impossible to think of the ticks singly, or otherwise than in groups of two: an accented beat and an unaccented; although the beats are of equal strength and duration.
This principle of dual balance is derived from the rhythmic pulsation of the human heart and, as we shall see, runs through all music.]
[Footnote 55: Whenever this book is used in cla.s.s, the teacher can easily explain, on the pianoforte and by charts, the different cadential effects. For those who have sufficient harmonic insight Chapter XIV in Foote and Spalding"s _Modern Harmony_ is worth consulting.]
A reversal of this order produces what is called the half-cadence, akin to the semicolon, _e.g._
[Music]
The union of the subdominant and tonic chords is known as the Plagal Cadence, _e.g._,
[Music]
and always gives a feeling of religious dignity and impressiveness.
Magnificent examples may be found in the closing measures of Wagner"s Overture to the _Mastersingers_ and of Brahms" _First Symphony in C minor_. In the final cadence of Debussy"s humorous piece for pianoforte, _Minstrels_, the effect is burlesqued, _e.g._
[Music]
When dominant harmony is followed by some unexpected chord we have the so-called Deceptive Cadence, which is not unlike the mark of interrogation (?) or even exclamation (!) _e.g._
[Music: WAGNER: _Overture to the Mastersingers_]
[Music: TCHAIKOWSKY: _5th Symphony_]
This last cadence gives an effect of dramatic surprise--certainly an exclamation of great force. One of the glories of modern music is the daring novelty of cadential effect which has been achieved by such composers as Franck, Debussy and Ravel; the student should try to become more and more familiar with such harmonic combinations. A beautiful example[56] is cited from Cesar Franck"s _Sonata for Violin and Pianoforte_.
[Footnote 56: See also the strikingly original cadences in Debussy"s _L"Isle joyeuse_.]
[Music]
The two endings for phrases are cla.s.sified as Masculine and Feminine and they correspond exactly to the same effects in the metre of a poetic stanza. When the second chord of the cadence, whatever it may be, coincides with a _strong_ beat, _i.e._, the first beat of the measure, the ending is Masculine, _e.g._