Hungarian folk-music[31] is noted for its syncopated rhythm and its peculiar metric groupings. It is also often highly embroidered with chromatic notes; the Hungarian scale, with _two_ augmented intervals, being an intensification of our minor mode, _e.g._
[Music]
[Footnote 31: The best popular collection of Hungarian melodies is that by Francis Korbay, the texts for which were translated and arranged by the American novelist, J.S. of Dale. It is well known what artistic use has been made of Hungarian melodies and rhythms by Schubert, Liszt and Brahms.]
Russia is fortunate in her musical inheritance; for not only has she a wealth of folk-songs, but her famous composers, Balakireff, Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakoff--who are men of letters as well--have published remarkable editions of these national melodies. The Russian folk-songs express, in general, a mood of sombreness or even depression--typical of the vast, bleak expanses of that country, and of its downtrodden people. These songs are usually in the minor mode--often with sudden changes of rhythm--and based on the old ecclesiastical modes, the Russian liturgy being very ancient and having an historical connection with that of the Greek church. The folk-music of no nation is more endowed with individuality and depth of emotion. Five characteristic examples are herewith cited:
[Music: I]
[Music: II]
[Music: III Harmonized by RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF]
[Music: IV]
[Music: V]
This last melody is of particular significance, because Tchaikowsky has used it so prominently in the Finale of his Fourth Symphony.
The growing interest in folk-music in America is a tendency concerning which the progressive student should inform himself. For a national basis of creative work, our country has always been at a disadvantage in comparison with nations which, as their birthright, have much music in their blood. Moreover, with the exception of the tunes of the aboriginal Indians and the plantation melodies of the Negroes, it has been a.s.serted that America could boast no folk-songs. Recent investigations have shown, however, that this is not entirely true.
Cecil Sharp, Henry Gilbert, Arthur Farwell and other musical scholars have proved that there are several regions of our country, settled by colonists from England, Ireland and Scotland, where folk-songs exist practically in the condition in which they were first brought over.
One of the best collections of such material is the set of so-called _Lonesome Tunes from the Kentucky Mountains_, taken down by Miss Lorraine Wyman and Mr. Howard Brockway directly from the mountaineers and other dwellers in that region. These melodies have great individuality, directness and no little poetic charm. It is certainly encouraging to feel that, in this industrial age, there are still places where people express their emotions and ideals in song; for a nation that has not learned to sing--or has forgotten how--can never create music that endures.
CHAPTER III
POLYPHONIC MUSIC; SEBASTIAN BACH
We have traced, in the preceding chapter, some of the fundamental principles of design in musical expression, as they were manifested in the Folk-music of the different nations. All music of this type was h.o.m.ophonic, _i.e._, a single melodic line, either entirely unaccompanied or with a slight amount of instrumental support. Hence however perfect in itself, it was necessarily limited in scope and in opportunity for organic development. Before music could become an independent art, set free from reliance on poetry, and could attain to a breadth of expression commensurate with the growth in other fields of art, there had to be established some principle of development, far more extensive than could be found in Folk-music. This principle[32]
of "Thematic Development"--the chief idiom of instrumental music--by which a motive or a theme is expanded into a large symphonic movement, was worked out in that type of music known as the Polyphonic or many-voiced; and Polyphonic music became, in turn, the point of departure for our modern system of harmony, with its methods of key relationship and of modulation. As we have stated in Chapter I, the principle of systematic repet.i.tion or imitation--first discovered and partially applied by the musicians[33] of the early French School and by the Netherland masters--finally culminated in the celebrated vocal works (a capella or unaccompanied) composed by Palestrina and his contemporaries for the Roman Catholic Liturgy. Up to this point the whole texture of music had been conceived in connection with voices; but with the development of the organ, so admirably suited for polyphonic style, and the perfection of the family of stringed instruments, the principles of polyphony were carried over and applied to instrumental treatment. The composer who, through his constructive genius, most fully embodied these principles[34] was John Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). We are now prepared to explain the characteristics of polyphonic music and then to a.n.a.lyze some typical examples from Bach and other polyphonic composers. The essential difference between h.o.m.ophonic and polyphonic style is implied by the terms themselves.
When there is but one melody, the skill of the composer and the attention of the listener are concentrated upon this single melodic line; and even if there be an accompaniment, it is so planned that the chief melody stands out in relief against it. The pre-eminence of this chief melody is seldom usurped, although the accompaniment often has interesting features of its own. As soon as we have more than one melody (whether there be two, three or still others) all these voice-parts may be of coequal importance, and the musical fabric becomes an interwoven texture of a number of strands. The genius and skill of the composer is now expended on securing life and interest for each of these voices--soprano, alto, tenor, ba.s.s--which seem to be braided together; and thus a much more comprehensive attention is required of the listener. For instead of the single melody in the soprano, or upper voice, of the Folk-song, we now must listen consciously to the ba.s.s and to both of the inner voices.[35] Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the recommendation that, in appreciating music, the first task is to train the ear to a wide range of listening. These differences in style are often apparent just as a pattern of design--to be seen from the following examples:
[Music: h.o.m.ophonic Style. Irish Folk-Song]
[Music: Polyphonic Style. BACH: Fugue in C Minor]
[Footnote 32: The statement might be qualified by saying that, since Beethoven, instrumental style has become a happy mixture of h.o.m.ophony for the chief melodies and polyphony for the supporting harmonic basis. Stress is laid in the above text on the polyphonic aspect merely to emphasize the matter under discussion.]
[Footnote 33: Notable names are Leonin and Perotin, both organists of Notre Dame at Paris.]
[Footnote 34: Although this is not the place to set forth all the details of this development, in the interest of historical justice we should not think of Bach without gratefully acknowledging the remarkable work of such pioneers as the Dutchman, Sweelinck (1562-1621), organist at Amsterdam; the Italian, Frescobaldi (1583-1644), organist at Rome, and--greatest of all, in his stimulating influence upon Bach--the Dane, Buxtehude (1636-1707), organist at Lubeck. Sweelinck and Frescobaldi may fairly be called the founders of the genuine Fugue, and there is a romantic warmth in Buxtehude"s best work which makes it thoroughly modern in sentiment.]
[Footnote 35: In connection with the statement that music has developed according to natural law, it is worth noting that the four-part chorus early became the standard for both vocal and instrumental groups for the simple reason that there exist two kinds of women"s voices--soprano and alto, and two of men"s voices--tenor and ba.s.s. Originally, the chief voice in the ecclesiastical chorus was the tenor (teneo), because the tenors _sustained_ the melody. Below them were the ba.s.ses (ba.s.sus, low); above the tenors came the altos (altus, high) and still higher the sopranos (sopra, above).]
In the latter example it is evident that there is an interweaving of _three_ distinct melodic lines.
The polyphonic instrumental works of Bach and his contemporaries were called by such names as Preludes, Fugues, Canons, Inventions, Toccatas and Fantasies; but since a complete account of all these forms would lead too far afield, we shall confine ourselves to a description of the Canon, the Invention and the Fugue. A Canon (from the Greek [Greek: Kanon], meaning a strict rule or law) is a composition in which there is a _literal_ systematic imitation, carried out to the end, between two or more of the voices (often with subsidiary voices filling in), and may be considered a kind of musical dialogue in which the second, or answering, part reenforces the message previously uttered by the leading voice. This imitation may take place at any degree of separation; and Canons are in existence at the interval of the second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. The most effective Canons, however, are those in which the answering voice is an octave away from the leading one. Although the Canon is not a form employed frequently by modern composers for an entire composition, Canonic imitation appears so often in all large works for orchestra, string quartet or ensemble combinations, that the music-lover should acquire a certain ease in listening to a structure of this type. The Canon, moreover, is an integral factor in the style of Cesar Franck, d"Indy and Brahms; and ill.u.s.trations of its use abound in their works. The organ is particularly well suited to the rendition of Canons; since, by its facilities for tone-color, the two voices may be clearly contrasted.
Those interested in organ literature should become acquainted with the following excellent examples: The _Canon in B-flat major_, op. 40, by Guilmant; the 4th movement of the _Fifth Organ Symphony_ by Widor; the Canon in B minor, op. 54, by Schumann; the _Canon in F-sharp major_, op. 30, by Merkel, and the set of _Ten Canonic studies_, op. 12, by G.W. Chadwick. In other fields of composition the following should be cited: The set of _Pianoforte Pieces in Canon form_, op. 35, by Jada.s.sohn; a like set by Rheinberger, op. 180; the _Canonic Vocal Trios_, op. 156, by Reinecke and the famous Canon from the first act of Beethoven"s opera _Fidelio_. There is also a beautiful bit of Canonic imitation between two of the upper voices in the introduction of Berlioz"s _Carnaval Romain Overture_ for orchestra. One of the most appealing Canons in modern literature is the setting for soprano and barytone, by Henschel, of the poem _Oh that we two were Maying_ by Charles Kingsley. This example alone would sufficiently corroborate the statement that the firmness of structure inherent in the canonic form is perfectly compatible with genuine freedom and poetry of inspiration. In the first movement of Cesar Frank"s _Symphony in D minor_, at the recapitulation (page 39 of the full score) may be found a magnificent example of the intensity of effect gained by a canonic imitation of the main theme--in this instance between the lower and upper voices. Possibly the finest example of canonic writing in all literature is the Finale of Cesar Franck"s _Sonata in A major_ for Violin and Pianoforte in which, for several pages, there is an eloquent dialogue between the two contrasting instruments. The movement is too long for citation but it should certainly be procured and studied. In the Trio of the Scherzo in Beethoven"s _Seventh Sonata for Violin and Pianoforte_ there is a free use of canonic imitation which will repay investigation. Lastly, the _Aria with 30 Variations_--the so-called _Goldberg Variations_ of Bach--is a perfect storehouse of every conceivable canonic device.
A few standard examples are to be found in the Supplement. These should be played over and studied until they are thoroughly familiar--not only for the pleasure to be derived, but for the indispensable training afforded in polyphonic listening.
Ex. No. 9 Canon by Thomas Tallys (1510-1585).
Ex. No. 10 Canonic Variation by Schumann from the _etudes Symphoniques_.
Ex. No. 11 of Bach"s _Goldberg Variations_.
Ex. No. 12 Canon in B-flat minor, op. 38, Grieg.
Ex. No. 13 Canon in F-sharp major, op. 35, Jada.s.sohn.
One of the most simple and direct types of polyphonic composition is the form known as the _Invention_ in which, as the term implies, the composer--through his _inventive genius_ and by means of the polyphonic devices of imitation and transposition--develops to a logical conclusion some short and characteristic motive. We are fortunate in having from Bach himself, that consummate master of polyphony, two sets of such Inventions: fifteen for two voices, and fifteen for three. These flights of fancy--in which art so subtly conceals art--though originally composed for the clavichord and harpsichord (the precursors of the pianoforte), are very effective on our modern instrument and should be in the possession of every music-student.[36] A brief a.n.a.lysis is now given of the first one in the set for two voices, and Nos. 4, 8 and 10 in this set are particularly recommended for study; also Nos. 2, 6 and 14 among those for three voices. The opening motive
[Music]
is the foundation of the entire composition and is at once imitated, canonically, in the lower voice. Then the two voices play about, with figures clearly derived from the motive, until we reach, in measures three and four, a systematic downward transposition of the material.
Such transpositions or shiftings up or down in pitch are called _Sequences_. They are very frequent in all polyphonic composition, give a strong sense of unity to melodic progression and are generally carried out in groups of three, _i.e._, the original figure and two repet.i.tions. After the sequence the music naturally works toward the most nearly related key (the dominant) and in the seventh measure reaches in that key its first objective. These Inventions of Bach, as well as the Dance forms soon to be studied, are almost invariably in what is known as _Two-part_ form, _i.e._, the music consists of two main divisions, clearly marked off by cadences[37]; the first of which modulates to the dominant or some related key while the second part, starting in this key, works back to a final close in the home key. In Inventions it early became customary in the second part to begin with the same motive as the first--but in the _opposite_ voice. Thus we see, in the Invention now being discussed, that the seventh measure begins with the original motive in the ba.s.s which, in turn, is imitated by the Soprano--a process just the reverse of that in the opening measures.
[Footnote 36: The best edition is that by Busoni, published by Breitkopf and Hartel.]
[Footnote 37: This technical term as well as others will later be more fully explained.]
[Music]
In pieces in this Two-part form the second portion is generally longer than the first; for the composer, by the time he has reached this second part, may consider the material sufficiently familiar to be expanded and varied by excursions into more remote keys, and by more intricate manipulations of the chief motive. In measure 11 we find a modulation to D minor and then, after some free treatment of the motive, we reach--in measure 15--a cadence in A minor. A long sequential pa.s.sage brings us, through a modulation to the subdominant key of F major (in measures 18 and 19), to a strong closing cadence in the home key. It should be noticed that in this Invention and in some of the dance forms there is shown a strong leaning towards a tripart.i.te division of the material as is indicated by the _three_ cadences in measures 7, 15 and 22. Since, however, the middle part is lacking in any strong _contrast_--which is such an essential factor in the fully developed three-part form--it seems better to consider this piece, and others like it, as a tendency rather than as a complete embodiment of tripart.i.te arrangement. It is expected that the music lover will take these Inventions for what they really are and not search in them for those notes of intense subjectivity and dramatic power so prevalent in modern music. They are merely little pieces--a "tour de force" in polyphonic ingenuity; music rejoicing in its own inherent vitality. Accepted in this spirit they are invigorating and charming.
The form in which polyphonic skill reaches its highest possibilities is the Fugue; and the immortal examples of this form are the Fugues of John Sebastian Bach, found in his _Well-tempered Clavichord_ and in his mighty works for the organ. The fundamental structure of a fugue is implied in the term itself (from the Latin "fuga"--flight); that is, in a fugue the main theme or subject is always announced in a single voice, and the remaining voices, appearing successively in accordance with definite principles of key-relationship, seem to chase each other about and to flee from pursuit. The several stratified entrances of the subject are relieved by intermediate pa.s.sages called "Episodes." An Episode, as shown by the derivation ([Greek: ipi hodos], by the way), is something off the beaten path--a digression; and it is in these episodical portions of a fugue rather than in the formalistic portions that the genius of the composer shines forth.
This is especially true of Bach, for almost any well-trained musician can invent a subject which will allow of satisfactory fugal treatment according to accepted usage; but no one save Bach has ever invented such free and fanciful episodes--so daring in scope and yet so closely connected with the main thought. The general effect of a fugue is _c.u.mulative_: a ma.s.sing and piling up of voices that lead to a carefully designed conclusion which, in some of Bach"s organ fugues, is positively overwhelming. A fugue may be called a mighty crescendo, like the sound of many waters. There is a popular conception, or rather _mis_conception, that a fugue is a labored, dull or even "dry"
form of composition, meant only as an exhibition of pedantic skill, and quite beyond the reach of ordinary musical appreciation. Nothing is farther from the truth, as a slight examination of musical literature will show. For we see that the fugal form has been used to express well-nigh every form of human emotion, the sublime, the tragic, the romantic; very often the humorous and the fantastic. When we recall the irresistible sparkle and dash of Mozart"s _Magic Flute Overture_, of the Overture to the _Bartered Bride_ by Smetana, of the Finale of Mozart"s _Jupiter Symphony_, and of many of the fugues in the _Well-tempered Clavichord_, it is evident that to call a fugue "dry" is an utter abuse of language. It is true that there are weak, artificial and dull fugues, where the composer--frankly--had nothing to say and merely filled out the form; but the same may be said of every type of composition, _i.e._, among them all are examples inspired and--less inspired. This, however, is no indictment of the fugue _per se_, against which the only thing to be said is that it requires on the part of the listener an exceeding concentration. Some of the masterpieces of the world being wholly or partially in the fugal form, it is the duty of those listening to polyphonic music to train their powers to the same seriousness of attention expected and freely given in the appreciation of an oration, a drama or a cathedral. These latter manifestations of artistic expression, to be sure, are less abstract than the fugue and more closely related to daily life. Yet no effort is more repaying than the mental and emotional energy expended in listening to the interweavings of a good fugue; for, conscious of missing the periodic divisions of the Folk-song, we have to listen to more than one melody at a time. A fugue being a composition, as the French say, of "longue haleine,"
our attention, in order to follow its structure, must be on the "qui vive" every moment. The fugue, in fact, is an example of the intricate and yet organic complexity found in all the higher forms of life itself; and whenever a composer has wished to dwell with emphasis on a particular theme, he almost invariably resorts to some form of fugal treatment, strict or free. The most effective media for rendering fugues are the chorus of mixed voices, the organ (by reason of its pedal key-board always making the subject in the ba.s.s stand out majestically) and the stringed orchestra which, with the "bite" of the strings, brings out--with peculiar sharpness--the different entrances of the subject. The student should become familiar with standard examples in each of these cla.s.ses and should, above all, seek opportunity to hear some of the organ fugues of Bach performed on a really fine instrument. A few well-known fugues are herewith cited in order to stimulate the student to some investigation of his own. In all the Oratorios of Handel and in the choral works of Bach, such as the B minor Ma.s.s, may be found magnificent fugues--as free and vital in their rhythmic swing as the ocean itself. Particular attention should be called to the fugue in the Messiah "And by His stripes we were healed [Transcriber"s Note: And with His stripes we are healed]."
One of the most impressive fugues in modern literature is the a capella chorus _Urbs Syon Unica_ from H.W. Parker"s _Hora Novissima_.
From among the organ works of Bach everyone should know the Fugues in G minor, in A minor, in D major[38] and the Toccata and Fugue in D minor. These have all been transcribed for the pianoforte by Liszt and so are readily available; they are often played at pianoforte recitals by Paderewski and other virtuosi. In hearing one of these masterpieces no one can remain unmoved or can fail to reverence the constructive genius which fashioned such cathedrals in tone. For orchestra we have the Prelude to Puccini"s opera _Madama b.u.t.terfly_, and the beginning of the Prelude to the third act of Wagner"s _Mastersingers_. There are striking fugal pa.s.sages in Beethoven"s Symphonies, _e.g._, the first movement of the _Heroic Symphony_ and the rollicking Trio of the Scherzo in the _Fifth Symphony_. In more modern literature there is the fugal Finale to Arthur Foote"s _Suite for Orchestra_ and in Chadwick"s _Vagrom Ballad_ a humorous quotation of the theme from Bach"s _G minor Fugue_ for organ. One of the most superb fugues in free style is the last movement of Cesar Franck"s _Prelude, Choral and Fugue in B minor_ for Pianoforte. This movement alone would refute all charges of dullness or dryness brought against the fugue by the unthinking or the unenlightened. A good fugue, in fact, is so full of vitality and demands such _active_ comprehension[39] on the part of the listener that it is not difficult to imagine where the dullness and dryness are generally found.
[Footnote 38: Whenever Percy Grainger performs this fugue in his own arrangement for pianoforte, he always electrifies an audience.]
[Footnote 39: It is worthy of observation that, for those who will listen to them intelligently, fugues do not merely demand such a state of mind but actually _generate_ it.]
At this point by an a.n.a.lysis of a fugue from the _Well-tempered Clavichord_, let us explain some of the technical features in fugal structure. We shall then be in a position to understand the more subtle devices of fugal treatment and to appreciate more enthusiastically some additional comments upon Bach"s style in general.
FUGUE IN E-FLAT MAJOR, NO. VII, IN THE FIRST BOOK.
[Music: Subject
Counter-subject