The student will note the essential difference between rhythm and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of these beats according to some specified system. In listening to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the _rhythm_ equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats into--_one_, two_one_, two--etc., while B feels the groups as--_one_, two, _three_, four_one_, two, _three_, four--etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing, inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have adopted for practical purposes.
98. In _syncopation_ the normal system of accenting is temporarily suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary interruption of a normal series of accents, _i.e._, accenting a beat that is usually not accented. Thus _e.g._, in Fig. 56, measure _one_ has the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure, (strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure _three_ has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 56.]
99. Measures are usually cla.s.sified as _simple_ and _compound_. A _simple measure_ is one which has but a single accent, _i.e._, the measure cannot be divided into smaller const.i.tuent groups. There are two main cla.s.ses of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat measure. A _compound measure_ is (as its name implies) one made up by combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single measure (in slow tempo) into several const.i.tuent groups. The princ.i.p.al compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and twelve-beat measures are also cla.s.sified as compound measures.
An English writer[23] cla.s.sifies measures as duple, triple, or quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided into halves ([Ill.u.s.tration] etc.) and that a compound measure is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note, whose value can be divided into three parts, ([Ill.u.s.tration]).
There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as to the meaning of the words _simple_ and _compound_ when applied in this connection, the princ.i.p.al question at issue being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures, either by placing two of these in a group or by the elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats, as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true--but in different compositions. That is, it is frequently impossible to tell whether a composition that is being listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet it _is_ sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however, one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to leave the original cla.s.sification intact and regard four-beat measure as a compound variety.
[Footnote 23: Pea.r.s.e--Rudiments of Musical Knowledge, p. 37.]
100. The _commonest varieties of measure_ are:
1. _Duple_ (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in which there are two beats, the first one being accented.
Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24]
two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.
[Footnote 24: For explanation of terminology, see p. 48, Sec.
106.]
2. _Triple_, (the old perfect measure), in which there are three beats, the first one being accented, the second and third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth, three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.
3. _Quadruple_, in which there are four beats, the first and third being accented (primary accent on _one_, secondary accent on _three_), the second and fourth unaccented. (See note above, under Sec. 99.)
4. _s.e.xtuple_, in which there are six beats, the first and fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures [Ill.u.s.tration] are identical in effect with [Ill.u.s.tration].
101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is thought of as a triplet. [Ill.u.s.tration] is identical in effect with [Ill.u.s.tration].
102. _Quintuple_ (five-beat) and _septuple_ (seven-beat) measures are occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic.
The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition), while the seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or of three and four.
103. The sign [common-time symbol] is usually understood to mean four-quarter measure, and the sign [cut-time symbol], two-half measure, but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign [cut-time symbol] always indicates that a half-note has a beat. [Double cut-time symbol] may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure but this is rare.
The student will note that the sign [common-time symbol] is not a _letter_ C, but an incomplete circle, differentiating two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect) measure. See Appendix A, p. 106. [Transcriber"s Note: page number missing in original.]
CHAPTER XI
TEMPO
104. The word _time_ in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused, having been used to indicate:
(1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."
(2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."
(3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."
To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain _changes in terminology_ as noted in Sections 105, 106, and 107. Such changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if our musical terminology is to be at all exact.
105. The _first of the changes_ mentioned in the above paragraph is to subst.i.tute the word _rhythm_ for the word _time_ when correcting mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. _E.g._, "Your _rhythm_ in the third measure of the lower score was wrong," instead of "Your _time_--was wrong."
106. The _second change_ mentioned would eliminate such blind and misleading expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four time," "six-eight time," etc., and subst.i.tute therefor such self-explanatory designations as "two-quarter measure," "three-quarter measure," "four-quarter measure," "six-eighth measure," etc. _E.g._, "The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in _four-quarter measure_."
107. The _third change_ referred to above would subst.i.tute the word _tempo_ (plural--_tempi_) for the word _time_ in all allusions to rate of speed. _E.g._, "The scherzo was played in very rapid _tempo_."
The word _tempo_ has been used in this connection so long by professional musicians that there can be no possible objection to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in all countries where modern music (_i.e._, civilized music) is performed, and just here is found the princ.i.p.al reason for the popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology.
Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried to break down this popularity by using their own respective vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if we are to have a _music notation_ that is universal, so that an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be understood by all, _i.e._, a music terminology that is universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is the most universally known in this particular at the present time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.
108. There are several _ways of finding the correct tempo_ of a composition:
1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of many compositions. Thus _e.g._, the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel"s Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel"s or some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25] and of the mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving metronomic indications.
[Footnote 25: To test the accuracy of a metronome, set the weight at 60 and see if it beats seconds. If it gives more than 62 or 63 or less than 57 or 58 clicks per minute it will not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be taken to a jeweller to be regulated.]
2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is open only to the musician of long experience, sure judgment, and sound scholarship.
3. A third method of finding tempi is through the interpretation of certain words used quite universally by composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of speed can be indicated, and in the last a.n.a.lysis the conductor or performer must fall back on the second method cited above--_i.e._, individual judgment.
109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer"s mind as he conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:
1. _Grave_ (lit. weighty, serious), _larghissimo_, _adagissimo_, and _lentissimo_--indicating the very slowest tempo used in rendering music.
2. _Largo_,[26] _adagio_,[27] and _lento_--indicating quite a slow tempo.
[Footnote 26: Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the Latin word _largus_, meaning large, broad.]
[Footnote 27: Adagio means literally at ease.]
3. _Larghetto_ (_i.e._, _a little largo_) and _adagietto_ (_a little adagio_)--a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as _largo_, etc.
4. _Andante_ (going, or walking, as contrasted with running) and _andantino_--indicating a moderately slow tempo.
_Andantino_ is now quite universally taken slightly faster than _andante_, in spite of the fact that if _andante_ means "going," and if "_ino_" is the diminutive ending, then _andantino_ means "going less," _i.e._, more slowly!
5. _Moderato_--a moderate tempo.
6. _Allegro_ and _allegretto_[28]--a moderately quick tempo, _allegretto_ being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo somewhat slower than _allegro_.
[Footnote 28: There has been some difference of opinion as to which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an a.n.a.lysis tells us that if _allegro_ means quick, and if _etto_ is the diminutive ending, then _allegretto_ means a little quick--_i.e._, slower than _allegro_. These two terms are, however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the matter is a mere waste of breath.]
The word _allegro_ means literally happy, joyous, and this literal meaning is still _sometimes_ applicable, but in the majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.
7. _Vivo_, _vivace_, (lit. lively)--a tempo between _allegro_ and _presto_.