We are not permitted to doubt the truth of these appalling facts,-- neither as regards the nefarious traffic, nor the captive women and children. At this very hour, not less than four thousand individuals of Spanish-Mexican race are held captives by the prairie tribes; and when Rosas swept the Pampas, he released fifteen hundred of similar unfortunates from their worse than Egyptian taskmasters,--the Puelches!
With such facts as these before our eyes, who can doubt the decline of the Spanish power? the utter enfeeblement of that once n.o.ble race? Who can contradict the hypothetical prophecy--more than once offered in these pages--that if the two races be left to themselves, the aboriginal, before the lapse of a single century, will once more recover the soil; and his haughty victor be swept from the face of the American continent?
Nor need such a change be too keenly regretted. The Spanish occupation of America has been an utter failure. It has served no high human purpose, but the contrary. It has only corrupted and encowardiced a once brave and n.o.ble race; and, savage as may be the character of that which would supplant it, still that savage has within him the elements of a future civilisation.
Not so the Spaniard. The fire of his civilisation has blazed up with a high but fitful gleam. It has pa.s.sed like the lightning"s flash. Its sparks have fallen and died out,--never to be rekindled again.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN.
THE YAMPARICOS, OR ROOT-DIGGERS.
It is now pretty generally known that there are many _deserts_ in North America,--as wild, waste, and inhospitable as the famed Sahara of Africa. These deserts occupy a large portion of the central regions of that great continent--extending, north and south, from Mexico to the sh.o.r.es of the Arctic Sea; and east and west for several hundred miles, on each side of the great vertebral chain of the Rocky Mountains. It is true that in the vast territory thus indicated, the desert is not continuous; but it is equally true that the fertile stripes or valleys that intersect it, bear but a very small proportion to the whole surface. Many tracts are there, of larger area than all the British Islands, where the desert is scarce varied by an oasis, and where the very rivers pursue their course amidst rocks and barren sands, without a blade of vegetation on their banks. Usually, however, a narrow selvage of green--caused by the growth of cotton woods, willows, and a few humbler plants--denotes the course of a stream,--a glad sight at all times to the weary and thirsting traveller.
These desert wastes are not all alike, but differ much in character. In one point only do they agree,--they are all _deserts_. Otherwise they exhibit many varieties,--both of aspect and nature. Some of them are level plains, with scarce a hill to break the monotony of the view: and of this character is the greater portion of the desert country extending eastward from the Rocky Mountains to about 100 degrees of west longitude. At this point the soil gradually becomes more fertile,-- a.s.suming the character of timbered tracts, with prairie opening between,--at length terminating in the vast, unbroken forests of the Mississippi.
This eastern desert extends parallel with the Rocky Mountains,-- throughout nearly the whole of their length,--from the Rio Grande in Mexico, northward to the Mackenzie River. One tract of it deserves particular mention. It is that known as the _llano estacado_, or "staked plain," It lies in North-western Texas, and consists of a barren plateau, of several thousand square miles in extent, the surface of which is raised nearly a thousand feet above the level of the surrounding plains. Geologists have endeavoured to account for this singular formation, but in vain. The table-like elevation of the Llano estacado still remains a puzzle. Its name, however, is easier of explanation. In the days of Spanish supremacy over this part of Prairie-land, caravans frequently journeyed from Santa Fe in New Mexico, to San Antonio in Texas. The most direct route between these two provincial capitals lay across the Llano estacado; but as there were neither mountains nor other landmarks to guide the traveller, he often wandered from the right path,--a mistake that frequently ended in the most terrible suffering from thirst, and very often in the loss of life.
To prevent such catastrophes, stakes were set up at such intervals as to be seen from one another, like so many "telegraph posts;" and although these have long since disappeared, the great plain still bears the name, given to it from this circ.u.mstance.
Besides the contour of surface, there are other respects in which the desert tracts of North America differ from one another. In their vegetation--if it deserves the name--they are unlike. Some have no vegetation whatever; but exhibit a surface of pure sand, or sand and pebbles; others are covered with a stratum of soda, of snow-white colour, and still others with a layer of common salt, equally white and pure. Many of these salt and soda "prairies"--as the trappers term them--are hundreds of square miles in extent. Again, there are deserts of scoria, of lava, and pumice-stone,--the "cut-rock prairies" of the trappers,--a perfect contrast in colour to the above mentioned. All these are absolutely without vegetation of any sort.
On some of the wastes--those of southern lat.i.tudes,--the cactus appears of several species, and also the wild agave, or "pita" plant; but these plants are in reality but emblems of the desert itself. So, also, is the _yucca_, which thinly stands over many of the great plains, in the south-western part of the desert region,--its stiff, s.h.a.ggy foliage in no way relieving the sterile landscape, but rather rendering its aspect more horrid and austere.
Again, there are the deserts known as "chapparals,"--extensive jungles of brush and low trees, all of a th.o.r.n.y character; among which the "mezquite" of several species (_mimosas_ and _acacias_), the "stink-wood" or _creosote plant_ (_kaeberlinia_), the "grease-bush"
(_obione canescens_), several kinds of _prosopis_, and now and then, as if to gratify the eye of the tired traveller, the tall flowering spike of the scarlet _fouquiera_. Further to the north--especially throughout the upper section of the Great Salt Lake territory--are vast tracts, upon which scarce any vegetation appears, except the _artemisia_ plant, and other kindred products of a sterile soil.
Of all the desert tracts upon the North-American continent, perhaps none possesses greater interest for the student of cosmography than that known as the "Great Basin." It has been so styled from the fact of its possessing a hydrographic system of its own,--lakes and rivers that have no communication with the sea; but whose waters spend themselves within the limits of the desert itself, and are kept in equilibrium by evaporation,--as is the case with many water systems of the continents of the Old World, both in Asia and Africa.
The largest lake of the "Basin" is the "Great Salt Lake,"--of late so celebrated in Mormon story: since near its southern sh.o.r.e the chief city of the "Latter-day Saints" is situated. But there are other large lakes within the limits of the Great Basin, both fresh and saline,--most of them entirely unconnected with the Great Salt Lake, and some of them having a complete system of waters of their own. There are "Utah" and "Humboldt," "Walker"s" and "Pyramid" lakes, with a long list of others, whose names have been but recently entered upon the map, by the numerous very intelligent explorers employed by the government of the United States.
Large rivers, too, run in all directions through this central desert, some of them falling into the Great Salt Lake, as the "Bear" river, the "Weber," the "Utah," from Utah Lake,--upon which the Mormon metropolis stands,--and which stream has been absurdly baptised by these free-living fanatics as the "Jordan?" Other rivers are the "Timpanogos," emptying into Lake Utah; the "Humboldt," that runs to the lake of that name; the "Carson" river; besides many of lesser note.
The limits a.s.signed to the Great Basin are tolerably well-defined. Its western rim is the _Sierra Nevada_, or "snowy range" of California; while the Rocky and Wahsatch mountains are its boundaries on the east.
Several cross-ranges, and spurs of ranges, separate it from the system of waters that empty northward into the Columbia River of Oregon; while upon its southern edge there is a more indefinite "divide" between it and the great desert region of the western "Colorado." Strictly speaking, the desert of the Great Basin might be regarded as only a portion of that vast tract of sterile, and almost treeless soil, which stretches from the Mexican state of Sonora to the upper waters of Oregon; but the deserts of the Colorado on the south, and those of the "forks" of the Columbia on the north, are generally treated as distinct territories; and the Great Basin, with the limits already a.s.signed, is suffered to stand by itself. As a separate country, then, we shall here consider it.
From its name, you might fancy that the Great Basin was a low-lying tract of country. This, however, is far from being the case. On the contrary, nearly all of it is of the nature of an elevated tableland, even its lakes lying several thousand feet above the level of the sea.
It is only by its "rim," of still more elevated mountain ridges, that it can lay claim to be considered as a "basin;" but, indeed, the name-- given by the somewhat speculative explorer, Fremont--is not very appropriate, since later investigations show that this rim is in many places neither definite nor regular,--especially on its northern and southern sides, where the "Great Basin" may be said to be badly cracked, and even to have some pieces chipped out of its edge.
Besides the mountain chains that surround it, many others run into and intersect it in all directions. Some are spurs of the main ranges; while others form "sierras"--as the Spaniards term them--distinct in themselves. These sierras are of all shapes and of every alt.i.tude,-- from the low-lying ridge scarce rising above the plain, to peaks and summits of over ten thousand feet in elevation. Their forms are as varied as their height. Some are round or dome-shaped; others shoot up little turrets or "needles;" and still others mount into the sky in shapeless ma.s.ses,--as if they had been flung upon the earth, and upon one another, in some struggle of t.i.tans, who have left them lying in chaotic confusion. A very singular mountain form is here observed,-- though it is not peculiar to this region, since it is found elsewhere, beyond the limits of the Great Basin, and is also common in many parts of Africa. This is the formation known among the Spaniards as _mesas_, or "table-mountains," and by this very name it is distinguished among the colonists of the Cape.
The _Llano estacado_, already mentioned, is often styled a "mesa," but its elevation is inconsiderable when compared with the _mesa_ mountains that occur in the regions west of the great Rocky chain,--both in the Basin and on the deserts of the Colorado. Many of these are of great height,--rising several thousand feet above the general level; and, with their square truncated _table-like_ tops, lend a peculiar character to the landscape.
The characteristic vegetation of the Great Basin is very similar to that of the other central regions of the North-American continent. Only near the banks of the rivers and some of the fresh-water lakes, is there any evidence of a fertile soil; and even in these situations the timber is usually scarce and stunted. Of course, there are tracts that are exceptional,--oases, as they are geographically styled. Of this character is the country of the Mormons on the Jordan, their settlements on the Utah and Bear Rivers, in Tuilla and Ogden valleys, and elsewhere at more remote points. There are also isolated tracts on the banks of the smaller streams and the sh.o.r.es of lakes not yet "located" by the colonist; and only frequented by the original dwellers of the desert, the red aborigines. In these oases are usually found cottonwood-trees, of several distinct species,--one or other of which is the characteristic, vegetation on nearly every stream from the Mississippi to the mountains of California.
Willows of many species also appear; and now and then, in stunted forms, the oak, the elm, maples, and sycamores. But all these last are very rarely encountered within the limits of the desert region. On the mountains, and more frequently in the mountain ravines pines of many species--some of which produce edible cones--grow in such numbers as to merit the name of forests, of greater or less extent. Among these, or apart from them, may be distinguished the darker foliage of the cedar (_Juniperus_) of several varieties, distinct from the _juniperus virginiana_ of the States.
The arid plains are generally without the semblance of vegetation. When any appears upon them, it is of the character of the "chapparal,"
already described; its princ.i.p.al growth being "tornilla," or "screw-wood," and other varieties of _mezquite_; all of them species of the extensive order of the _leguminosae_, and belonging to the several genera of _acacias_, _mimosas_, and _robinias_. In many places _cactacae_ appear of an endless variety of forms; and some,--as the "pitahaya" (_cereus giganteus_), and the "tree" and "cochineal" cacti (_opuntias_),--of gigantesque proportions. These, however, are only developed to their full size in the regions further south,--on the deserts of the Colorado and Gila,--where also the "tree yuccas" abound, covering tracts of large extent, and presenting the appearance of forests of palms.
Perhaps the most characteristic vegetation of the Great Basin--that is, if it deserve the name of a vegetation--is the wild sage, or _artemisia_. With this plant vast plains are covered, as far as the eye can reach; not presenting a hue of green, as the gra.s.s prairies do, but a uniform aspect of greyish white, as monotonous as if the earth were without a leaf to cover it. Instead of relieving the eye of the traveller, the artemisia rather adds to the dreariness of a desert landscape,--for its presence promises food neither to man nor horse, nor water for them to drink, but indicates the absence of both. Upon the hill-sides also is it seen, along the sloping declivities of the sierras, marbling the dark volcanic rocks with its h.o.a.ry frondage.
More than one species of this wild sage occurs throughout the American desert: there are four or five kinds, differing very considerably from each other, and known to the trappers by such names as "wormwood,"
"grease-bush," "stink-plant," and "rabbit-bush." Some of the species attain to a considerable height,--their tops often rising above the head of the traveller on horseback,--while another kind scarce reaches the knee of the pedestrian.
In some places the plains are so thickly covered with this vegetation, that it is difficult for either man or horse to make way through them,-- the gnarled and crooked branches twisting into each other and forming an impenetrable wattle. At other places, and especially where the larger species grow, the plants stand apart like apple-trees in an orchard, and bear a considerable resemblance to shrubs or small trees.
Both man and horse refuse the artemisia as food; and so, too, the less fastidious mule. Even a donkey will not eat it. There are animals, however,--both birds and beasts, as will be seen hereafter,--that relish the sage-plant; and not only eat of it, but subsist almost exclusively on its stalks, leaves, and berries.
The denizens of the Great Basin desert--I mean its human denizens--are comprehended in two great families of the aboriginal race,--the _Utahs_ and _Snakes_, or _Shoshonees_. Of the white inhabitants--the Mormons and trap-settlers--we have nothing to say here. Nor yet much respecting the above-mentioned Indians, the Utahs and Snakes. It will be enough for our purpose to make known that these two tribes are distinct from each other,--that there are many communities or sub-tribes of both,-- that each claims ownership of a large tract of the central region, lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada; and that their limits are not coterminal with those of the Great Basin: since the range of the Snakes extends into Oregon upon the north, while that of the Utahs runs down into the valley of the Rio del Norte upon the south. Furthermore, that both are in possession of the horse,--the Utahs owning large numbers,--that both are of roving and predatory habits, and quite as wicked and warlike as the generality of their red brethren.
They are also as well to do in the world as most Indians; but there are many degrees in their "civilisation," or rather in the comforts of their life, depending upon the situation in which they may be placed. When dwelling upon a good "salmon-stream," or among the rocky mountain "parks," that abound in game, they manage to pa.s.s a portion of the year in luxuriant abundance. In other places, however, and at other times, their existence is irksome enough,--often bordering upon actual starvation.
It may be further observed, that the Utahs and Snakes usually occupy the larger and more fertile oases of the desert,--wherever a tract is found of sufficient size to subsist a community. With this observation I shall dismiss both these tribes; for it is not of them that our present sketch is intended to treat.
This is specially designed for a far _odder_ people than either,--for the _Yamparicos_, or "Root-diggers;" and having described their country, I shall now proceed to give some account of themselves.
It may be necessary here to remark that the name "Diggers," has of late been very improperly applied,--not only by the settlers of California, but by some of the exploring officers of the United States government.
Every tribe or community throughout the desert, found existing in a state of special wretchedness, has been so styled; and a learned ethnologist (!), writing in the "Examiner," newspaper, gravely explains the name, by deriving it from the gold-diggers of California! This "conceit" of the London editor is a palpable absurdity,--since the Digger Indians were so designated, long before the first gold-digger of California put spade into its soil. The name is of "trapper" origin; bestowed upon these people from the observation of one of their most common practices,--viz, the _digging for roots_, which form an essential portion of their subsistence. The term "yamparico," is from a Spanish source, and has a very similar meaning to that of "Root-digger." It is literally "Yampa-rooter," or "Yampa-root eater," the root of the "yampa"
(_anethum graviolens_) being their favourite food. The true "Diggers"
are not found in California west of the Sierra Nevada; though certain tribes of ill-used Indians in that quarter are called by the name. The great deserts extending between the Nevada and the Rocky Mountains are their locality; and their limits are more or less cotemporaneous with those of the Shoshonees or Snakes, and the Utahs,--of both of which tribes they are supposed to be a sort of outcast kindred. This hypothesis, however, rests only on a slight foundation: that of some resemblance in habits and language, which are very uncertain _criteria_ where two people dwell within the same boundaries,--as, for instance, the whites and blacks in Virginia. In fact, the language of the Diggers can scarce be called a language at all: being a sort of gibberish like the growling of a dog, eked out by a copious vocabulary of signs: and perhaps, here and there, by an odd word from the Shoshonee or Utah,--not unlikely, introduced by the a.s.sociation of the Diggers with these last-mentioned tribes.
In the western and southern division of the Great Basin, the Digger exists under the name of _Paiute_, or more properly, _Pah-Utah_,-- so-called from his supposed relationship with the tribe of the Utahs.
In some respects the Pah-Utahs differ from the Shoshokee, or Snake-Diggers; though in most of their characteristic habits they are very similar to each other. There might be no anomaly committed by considering them as one people; for in personal appearance and habits of life the Pah-Utah, and the "Shoshokee"--this last is the national appellation of the yampa-eater,--are as like each other as _eggs_. We shall here speak however, princ.i.p.ally of the Shoshokees: leaving it to be understood, that their neighbours the "Paiutes" will equally answer the description.
Although the Shoshokees, as already observed, dwell within the same limits as their supposed kindred the Shoshonees, they rarely or never a.s.sociate with the latter. On the contrary, they keep well out of their way,--inhabiting only those districts of country where the larger Shoshonee communities could not dwell. The very smallest oasis, or the tiniest stream, affords all the fertility that is required for the support of a Digger family; and rarely are these people found living more than one, or at most, two or three families together. The very necessity of their circ.u.mstances precludes the possibility of a more extensive a.s.sociation; for on the deserts where they dwell, neither the earth nor the air, nor yet the water, affords a sufficient supply of food to support even the smallest "tribe." Not in tribes, then, but in single families, or little groups of two or three, do the Digger Indians dwell,--not in the larger and more fertile valleys, but in those small and secluded; in the midst of the sage-plains, or more frequently in the rocky defiles of the mountains that stand thickly over the "Basin."
The Shoshokee is no _nomade_, but the very reverse. A single and isolated mountain is often the abode of his group or family; and beyond this his wanderings extend not. There he is at home, knowing every nook and rat-hole in his own neighbourhood; but as ignorant of the world beyond as the "sand-rats" themselves,--whose pursuit occupies the greater portion of his time.
In respect to his "settled" mode of life, the _Shoshokee_ offers a striking contrast to the _Shoshonee_. Many of the latter are Indians of n.o.ble type,--warriors who have tamed the horse, and who extend their incursions, both hunting and hostile, into the very heart of the Rocky Mountains,--up their fertile valleys, and across their splendid "parks,"
often bringing back with them the scalps of the savage and redoubtable Blackfeet.
Far different is the character of the wretched Shoshokee,--the mere semblance of a human being,--who rarely strays out of the ravine in which he was brought forth; and who, at sight of a human face--be it of friend or enemy--flies to his crag or cave like a hunted beast!
The Pah-Utah Diggers, however, are of a more warlike disposition; or rather a more wicked and hostile one,--hostile to whites, or even to such other Indians as may have occasion to travel through the deserts they inhabit. These people are found scattered throughout the whole southern and south-western portion of the Great Basin,--and also in the north-western part of the Colorado desert,--especially about the Sevier River, and on several of the tributaries of the great Colorado itself of the west It was through this part of the country that the caravans from California to New Mexico used to make their annual "trips,"--long before Alta Calafornia became a possession of the United States,--and the route by which they travelled is known as the _Spanish trail_. The object of these caravans was the import of horses, mules, and other animals,--from the fertile valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, to the more sterile settlements of New Mexico. Several kinds of goods were also carried into these interior countries.
This Spanish trail was far from running in a direct line. The sandy, waterless plain--known more particularly as the Colorado desert--could not be crossed with safety, and the caravan-route was forced far to the north; and entered within the limits of the Great Basin--thus bringing it through the county inhabited by the Pah-Utah Diggers. The consequence was, that these savages looked out annually for its arrival; and, whenever an opportunity offered, stole the animals that accompanied it, or murdered any of the men who might be found straggling from the main body. When bent on such purposes, these Diggers for a time threw aside their solitary habits,--a.s.sembling in large bands of several hundred each, and following the caravan travellers, like wolves upon the track of a gang of buffaloes. They never made their attacks upon the main body, or when the white men were in any considerable force. Only small groups who had lagged behind, or gone too rashly in advance, had to fear from these merciless marauders,--who never thought of such a thing as making captives, but murdered indiscriminately all who fell into their hands. When horses or mules were captured, it was never done with the intention of keeping them to ride upon. Scarcely ever do the Pah-Utahs make such a use of the horse. Only for food were these stolen or plundered from their owners; and when a booty of this kind was obtained, the animals were driven to some remote defile among the mountains, and there slaughtered outright. So long as a morsel of horse or mule flesh remained upon the bones, the Diggers kept up a scene of feasting and merriment--precisely similar to the _carnivals_ of the African Bushmen, after a successful foray upon the cattle of the Dutch settlers near the Cape. Indeed there is such a very striking resemblance between the Bushmen of Africa and these Digger Indians of North America; that, were it not for the distinction of race, and some slight differences in personal appearance, they might pa.s.s as one people. In nearly every habit and custom, the two people resemble each other; and in many mental characteristics they appear truly identical.
The Pah-Utah Diggers have not yet laid aside their hostile and predatory habits. They are at the present hour engaged in plundering forays,-- acting towards the emigrant trains of Californian adventurers just as they did towards the Spanish caravans. But they usually meet with a very different reception from the more daring Saxon travellers, who const.i.tute the "trains" now crossing their country; and not unfrequently a terrible punishment is the reward of their audacity. For all that, many of the emigrants, who have been so imprudent as to travel in small parties, have suffered at their hands, losing not only their property, but their lives; since hundreds of the bravest men have fallen by the arrows of these insignificant savages! Even the exploring parties of the United States government, accompanied by troops, have been attacked by them; and more than one officer has fallen a victim to their Ishmaelitish propensities.
It is not in open warfare that there is any dread of them. The smallest party of whites need not fear to encounter a hundred of them at once; but their attacks are made by stealth, and under cover of the night; and, as soon as they have succeeded in separating the horses or other animals from the travellers" camp, they drive them off so adroitly that pursuit is impossible. Whenever a grand blow has been struck--that is, a traveller has been murdered--they all disappear as if by magic; and for several days after not one is to be seen, upon whom revenge might be taken. The numerous "smokes," rising up out of the rocky defiles of the mountains, are then the only evidence that human beings are in the neighbourhood of the travellers" camp.
The Digger is different from other North-American Indians,--both in physical organisation and intellectual character. So low is he in the scale of both, as to dispute with the African Bushman, the Andaman Islander, and the starving savage of Tierra del Fuego, the claim to that point in the transition, which is supposed to separate the monkey from the man. It has been variously awarded by ethnologists, and I as one have had my doubts, as to which of the three is deserving of the distinction. Upon mature consideration, however, I have come to the conclusion that the Digger is ent.i.tled to it.
This miserable creature is of a dark-brown or copper colour,--the hue so generally known as characteristic of the American aborigines. He stands about five feet in height,--often under but rarely over this standard,-- and his body is thin and meagre, resembling that of a frog stretched upon a fish-hook. The skin that covers it--especially that of an old Digger--is wrinkled and corrugated like the hide of an Asiatic rhinoceros,--with a surface as dry as parched buck-skin. His feet, turned in at the toes,--as with all the aborigines of America,--have some resemblance to human feet; but in the legs this resemblance ends.
The lower limbs are almost dest.i.tute of calves, and the knee-pans are of immense size,--resembling a pair of pads or callosities, like those upon goats and antelopes. The face is broad and angular, with high cheek-bones; the eyes small, black, and sunken, and sparkle in their hollow sockets, not with true intelligence, but that sort of vivacity which may often be observed in the lower animals, especially in several species of monkeys. Throughout the whole physical composition of the Digger, there is only one thing that appears luxuriant,--and that is his hair. Like all Indians he is amply endowed in this respect, and long, black tresses--sometimes embrowned by the sun, and matted together with mud or other filth--hang over his naked shoulders. Generally he crops them.
In the summer months, the Digger"s costume is extremely simple,--after the fashion of that worn by our common parents, Adam and Eve. In winter, however, the climate of his desert home is rigorous in the extreme,--the mountains over his head, and the plains under his feet, being often covered with snow. At this season he requires a garment to shelter his body from the piercing blast; and this he obtains by st.i.tching together a few skins of the sage-hare, so as to form a kind of shirt or body-coat. He is not always rich enough to have even a good coat of this simple material; and its scanty skirt too often exposes his wrinkled limbs to the biting frost.