Fig. 80.
Several precautions require to be mentioned. In the first place, spelter is merely rather soft bra.s.s, and consequently it often cannot be fused without endangering the rest of the work. A good protection is a layer of fireclay laid upon the more delicate parts, such for instance as any screwed part.
Gun-metal and tap-metal do not lend themselves to brazing so readily as iron or yellow bra.s.s, and are usually more conveniently treated by means of silver solder.
Spelter tends to run very freely when it melts, and if the bra.s.s surface in the neighbourhood of the joint is at all clean, may run where it is not wanted. Of course some control may be exercised by "soiling" with fireclay or using an oxidising flame; but the erratic behaviour of spelter in this respect is the greatest drawback to its use in apparatus construction. The secret of success in brazing lies in properly cleaning up the work to begin with, and in disposing the borax so as to prevent subsequent oxidation.
-- 100. Silver Soldering.
This process resembles that last described, but instead of spelter an alloy of silver, copper, and zinc is employed. The solder, as prepared by jewellers to meet special cases, varies a good deal in composition, but for the laboratory the usual proportions are:
For soft silver solder
Fine silver 2 parts Bra.s.s wire 1 part
For hard silver solder
Sterling silver 3 parts Bra.s.s wire 1 part
The latter is, perhaps, generally the more convenient.
Silver solders may, of course, be purchased at watchmakers" supply shops, and as thus obtained, are generally in thin sheet. This is snipped fine with a pair of shears preparatory to use.
As odds and ends of silver (from old anodes and silver residues) generally acc.u.mulate in the laboratory, it is often more convenient to make the solder one"s self. In this case it must be remembered in making hard solder by the second receipt that standard silver contains about one-twelfth of its weight of copper--exactly 18 parts copper to 220 silver.
The silver is first melted in a plumbago crucible in a small furnace together with a little borax; if any copper is required this is then added, and finally the bra.s.s is introduced. When fusion is complete, the contents of the crucible are poured into any suitable mould.
The quickest and most convenient way of preparing the alloy for use is to convert it into filings with the a.s.sistance of a coa.r.s.e file, or by milling it, if a milling machine is available.
Equal volumes of filings and powdered gla.s.s borax are made into a thin paste with water, and applied in an exactly similar manner to that described under the head of "brazing." In fact all the processes there described may be applied equally to the case under discussion, the subst.i.tution of silver for spelter being the only variation.
The silver solder is more manageable than spelter, and does not tend to run wild over the work: a property which makes it much more convenient both for delicate joints and in cases where it is desired to restrict the solder to a single point or line. Small objects are almost invariably soldered with silver solder, and are held by forceps or on charcoal in the pointed flame of an ordinary blow-pipe.
-- 101. On the Construction of Electrical Apparatus: Insulators.
It is not intended to deal in any way with the design of special examples of electrical apparatus, but merely to describe a rather miscellaneous set of materials and processes constantly required in its construction.
It is not known whether there is such a thing as a perfect insulator, even if we presuppose ideal circ.u.mstances. Materials as they exist must be regarded merely as of high specific resistance, that is if we allow ourselves to use such a term in connection with substances, conduction through which is neither independent of electromotive force per unit length, nor of previous history.
Even the best of these substances generally get coated with a layer of moisture when exposed to the air, and this as a rule conducts fairly well. Very pure crystalline sulphur and fused quartz suffer from this defect less than any other substances with which the writer is acquainted, but even with them the surface conductivity soon grows to such an extent as totally to mask the internal conduction.
It is proposed to give a brief account of the properties of some insulating substances and their application in electrical construction, and at the same time to indicate the appliances and methods requisite for working them.
With regard to the specific resistances which will be quoted, the numbers must not be taken to mean too much, partly for the reason already given. It is also in general doubtful whether sufficient care has been taken to distinguish the body from the surface conductivity, and consequently numerical estimates are to be regarded with suspicion. The question of "sampling" also arises, for it must be remembered that a change in composition amounting to, say, 1/10000 per cent may be accompanied by a million-fold change in specific resistance.
-- 102. Sulphur.
This element exists in several allotropic forms, which have very different electric properties. After melting at about 125 C, and annealing at 110 for several hours, the soluble crystalline modification is formed. After keeping for some days--especially if exposed to light--the crystals lose their optical properties, but remain of the same melting-point, and are perfectly soluble in carbon bisulphide. The change is accompanied by a change in colour, or rather in brightness, as the transparency changes.
The "specific resistance" of sulphur in this condition is above 1028 C.G.S.E.M. units, or 1013 megohms per cubic centimetre for an electric intensity of say 12,000 volts per centimetre. This is at ordinary temperatures. At 75 C. the specific resistance falls to about 1025 under similar conditions as to voltage.
In all cases the conductivity appears to increase with the electric intensity, or at all events with an increase in voltage, the thickness of the layer of sulphur remaining the same.
The specific inductive capacity is 3.162 at ordinary temperatures, and increases very slightly with rise of temperature. [Footnote: March 1897.--It is now the opinion of the writer that though the specific inductive capacity of a given sample of a solid element is perfectly definite, yet it is very difficult to obtain two samples having exactly the same value for this constant, even in the case of a material so well defined as sulphur.]
The total residual charge, after ten minutes" charging with an intensity of 12,000 volts per centimetre, is not more than 4 parts in 10,000 of the original charge. In making this measurement the discharge occupied a fraction of a second. The electric strength for a h.o.m.ogeneous plate of crystalline sulphur is not less than 33,000 volts per centimetre, and probably a good deal more. If the sulphur is contaminated with up to 3 per cent of the amorphous variety, as is the case if it is cooled fairly quickly from a temperature of 170 C.
or over, the specific resistance falls to from 10^25 to 10^26 at ordinary temperatures; and the specific inductive capacity increases up to 3.75, according to the amount of insoluble sulphur present.
The residual charge under circ.u.mstances similar to those described above, but with an intensity of about 4000 volts per centimetre is, say, 2 per cent of the initial charge. So far as the writer is aware sulphur is the only solid non-conductor which can be easily obtained in a condition of approximate purity and in samples sufficiently exactly comparable with one another; it is the only one, therefore, that repays any detail of description.
Very pure sulphur can be bought by the ton if necessary from the United Alkali Company of Newcastle-on-Tyne. It is recovered from sulphur waste by the Chance process, which consists in converting the sulphur into hydrogen sulphide, and burning the latter with insufficient air for complete combustion. The sulphur is thrown out of combination, and forms a crystalline ma.s.s on the walls and floor of the chamber.
The sulphur which comes into the market consists of this ma.s.s broken up into convenient fragments. In order to purify it sufficiently for use as an insulator, the sulphur may be melted at a temperature of 120 to 140 C, and filtered through a plug of gla.s.s wool in a zinc funnel; as thus prepared it is an excellent insulator. To obtain the results mentioned in the table it is, however, necessary to conduct a further purification (chiefly from water) by distillation in a gla.s.s retort.
The sulphur thus obtained may be cast of any desired form in zinc moulds, the castings and moulds being immediately removed to an annealing oven at a temperature of from 100 to 110 C, where they are left for several hours. If the sulphur is kept melted for some time at 125 C. the annealing is not so important.
The castings may be removed from the mould by slightly heating the latter, but many breakages result. Insulators made on this plan are much less affected by the condensation of moisture from the air than anything except fused quartz. They are, however, very weak mechanically, and apt to crack by exposure to such changes of temperature as go on from day to day. It is clear, however, that in spite of this their magnificent electrical properties fit them for many important uses.
If the sulphur be cooled rapidly from 170 C. or over, a mixture of the crystalline and amorphous varieties of sulphur is obtained. This mixture is very much stronger and tougher than the purely crystalline substance, and may be worked with ordinary hardwood tools into fairly permanent plates, rods, etc. Sheets of pure thick filter paper may also be dipped into sulphur at 170 C, at which temperature air and moisture are mostly expelled, and such sheets show a very considerable insulating power. The sulphur does not penetrate the paper, which therefore merely forms a nucleus.
Cakes of the crystalline or mixed varieties may be made by grinding up some purified sulphur, moistening it with redistilled carbon bisulphide, or toluene, or even benzene (C6H6), and pressing it in a suitable mould under the hydraulic press. The plates thus formed are porous, but are splendid insulators, especially if made from the crystalline variety of sulphur, and they appear to keep their shape very well, and do not crack with ordinary temperature changes.
The metals which resist the action of sulphur best are gold and aluminium; while platinum and zinc are practically unacted upon at temperatures below a red heat--in the former case,--and below the boiling-point of sulphur in the latter.
A very convenient test of the purity of sulphur is the colour a.s.sumed by it when suddenly cooled from the temperature at which it is viscous. Quite pure sulphur remains of a pale lemon yellow under this treatment, but the slightest trace of impurity, such as arises from dust containing organic matter, stains the sulphur, and renders it darker in colour.
-- 103. Fused Quartz.
This is on the whole the most reliable and most perfect insulator for general purposes. No exact numerical data have been obtained, but the resistivity must certainly be of the same order as that of pure sulphur at its best. The influence of the moisture of the air also reaches its minimum in the case of quartz, as was originally observed by Boys.
As yet, however, the material can only be obtained in the form of rods or threads. For most purposes rods of about one-eighth of an inch in diameter are the most convenient. These rods may be used as insulating supports, and succeed perfectly even if they interpose less than an inch of their length to electrical conduction. The sketch (Figs. 81 and 81A) shows (to a scale of about one-quarter full size) a complete outfit for elementary electrostatic experiments, such as has been in use in the writer"s laboratory for five years. With these appliances all the fundamental experiments may be performed, and the apparatus is always ready at a moment"s notice.
Fig. 81.
Though quartz does not condense moisture or gas to form a conducting layer of anything like the same conductivity as in the case of gla.s.s or ebonite, still it is well to heat it if the best results are to be obtained. For this purpose a small pointed blow-pipe flame may be used, and the rods may be got red-hot without the slightest danger of breaking them. They then remain perfectly good and satisfactory for several hours at least, even when exposed to damp and dusty air.
The rods are conveniently held in position by small bra.s.s ferrules, into which they are fastened by a little plaster of Paris. Sealing-wax must be avoided, on account of the inconvenience it causes when the heating of the rods is being carried out.
One useful application of fused quartz is to the insulation of galvanometer coils (Fig. 82), another to the manufacture of highly insulating keys (Fig. 83); while as an insulating suspension it has all the virtues. If it is desired to render the threads conducting they may be lightly silvered, and will be found to conduct well enough for electrometer work before the silver coating is thick enough to sensibly impair their elastic properties.
Fig. 81A.
Fig. 82 is a full-size working drawing of a particular form of mounting for galvanometer coils. The objects sought to be attained are: (1) high insulation of the coils,
(2) easy adjustment of the coils to the suspended system.
The first object is attained as follows. The ebonite ring A is bored with four radial holes, through which are slipped from the inside the fused quartz bolt-headed pins B. The coil already soaked in hard paraffin is placed concentrically in the ring A by means of a special temporary centering stand. The s.p.a.ce between the coil and the ring is filled up with hard paraffin, and this holds the quartz pins in position. The system of ebonite ring, coil, and pins is then fastened into the gun-metal coil carrier, which is cut away entirely, except near the edges, where it carries the pin brackets C. These brackets can swivel about the lower fastening at E before the latter is tightened up.