At present, the appointment of electors is a necessary but a comparatively unimportant step in the election of a President.
The real power exists in the National conventions of the great political parties. Instead of exercising the right of free choice, as they were originally expected to do, the electors are really bound to vote for candidates nominated in these conventions. Let us consider, then, some of the chief points in the history and practical working of National conventions.
Early Methods of Nominating.--Like the development of other political usages, the method of nominating a President pa.s.sed through several stages before the present plan of nominating conventions was reached. No nominations were made in the first two Presidential elections. In 1796, Washington having refused to be a candidate for a third term, party managers in Congress agreed informally on Adams and Jefferson as the candidates of the Federalist and the Republican parties respectively. A caucus of Federalist Congressmen, in 1800, nominated Adams and Pinckney, and a caucus of Republican Congressmen nominated Jefferson and Burr, for the offices of President and Vice-President. The Republican members of Congress continued to hold a regular caucus and thus to direct the votes of the party electors until 1824. In that year William H. Crawford, the last Congressional nominee, was defeated.
There was opposition to the Congressional caucus from the beginning, for such a method was regarded as undemocratic. In 1824 and 1828 the several State legislatures put forward their favorites for the office of President.
Development of National Conventions.--As early as 1812, De Witt Clinton was nominated as the candidate of the Federalists in a convention held in New York City, made up of seventy delegates, who represented eleven States. But the National nominating convention, as we know it, was used for the first time by the Anti-Masonic party, which selected William Wirt for its candidate in 1831. This method was followed in the same year by the National Republican party, which nominated Henry Clay. The National convention of the Democratic party in 1832 nominated Andrew Jackson, who had already been nominated by many local conventions and State legislatures.
Many years elapsed before the present complex organization was reached, but since 1836, with the single exception of the Whig party in that year, parties have regarded the National convention as an essential factor in electing President and Vice-President.
Prior to the nominations for the Presidency in 1912, the usual plan was to select two delegates to the National convention from each of the Congressional districts, and also four delegates at large. The district delegates were chosen in the district conventions of the different parties, and the delegates at large in State conventions.
In some of the States all of the delegates were selected in the State conventions.
It now seems probable before another Presidential election that some form of the _direct primary_ will be in use in all of the States. The growth of sentiment in favor of the selection of delegates to the National convention by the direct primary has been most remarkable. Oregon, California, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Ma.s.sachusetts, and Michigan pa.s.sed such primary laws prior to the election of 1912.
Pennsylvania had a modified primary law, and in a number of other States there were voluntary primaries.
Election of Delegates to the National Conventions.--The National conventions of the Republican and the Democratic parties are made up of twice as many delegates from the different States as these States have representatives and senators in Congress.
The National Convention.--The National convention is held in some leading city during the month of June or July of the year in which a President is to be elected. A few days before the time set for the convention, the delegates, together with many thousands of politicians and sight-seers, flock to that city. Headquarters are established and delegates are interviewed on behalf of the different candidates. On the day appointed, the convention is called to order by the chairman of the National committee, under whose auspices the convention is to be held. A temporary chairman is elected, and clerks and secretaries are appointed. Committees are also appointed, the most important being those on credentials and on resolutions. Each State delegation selects one of its members for each of the committees. In the next session, a permanent chairman is usually selected, and the committee on resolutions presents its report, which sets forth the platform embodying party doctrines and principles. Nominations are then in order. The roll of States is called, and the various delegations place before the convention the favorite of their State. A State often waives its privilege in behalf of some other State which has a candidate to present. Again the clerk calls the roll of the States, and each chairman of a delegation announces the votes from his State. In the Republican convention a majority of the number of delegates voting is sufficient to nominate; but no nomination is possible in the Democratic convention except by a vote of two-thirds of the delegates. Then follows the selection of a candidate for Vice-President. In this choice the attempt is made to secure some man who will add strength to the party, and who comes from a different section of the country from that represented by the candidate for the Presidency. He may, as in the cases of Tyler and Johnson, represent a faction of the party that is not in entire agreement with the majority.
The National Committee.--A National committee is also appointed, made up of one member from each State, who is nominated by the State delegation. The wishes of the Presidential candidate are of influence in the choice of the chairman, who need not be a member of the convention. The committee occupies a position of great importance, for by it the platform of the party is largely determined. We have here a body of men not mentioned by the Const.i.tution, but exerting vastly greater influence upon the election of President than does the electoral college itself. It organizes the campaign, secures money, selects speakers, and sends out party literature. The committee looks after the interests of the party during the ensuing four years and issues the call for the next National convention.
Election of Electors.--We are now ready to consider the place of the electors in the choice of a President. The nominations of candidates for the office of elector are usually made at the State conventions of the different parties when State tickets are nominated. These occur, ordinarily, in August or September preceding the November election.
Each political party nominates as many electors as the State has senators and representatives in Congress. The names of the electors are then placed on the general party ticket, on which appear also the names of the candidates for President and Vice-President; each person then votes for the entire number of electors to which his State is ent.i.tled, and will naturally vote for all the electors on his party ticket. The political party, therefore, which receives the majority of votes in a State secures all the electoral votes of that State.[40]
[Footnote 40: It has sometimes happened, however, when the election in a State has been close, that one or more of the electors on a minority ticket have run ahead of the other candidates on that ticket, and have secured a larger number of votes than candidates on the majority ticket, thus obtaining an election. California, in 1892, gave one electoral vote to Mr. Harrison and eight to Mr. Cleveland, and again, in 1896, gave eight votes to Mr. McKinley and one to Mr. Bryan. Kentucky, in 1896, cast twelve votes for Mr. McKinley and one for Mr. Bryan.]
Vacancies in the Offices of Electors.--Congress enacted in 1845 that each State might provide, by law, for the filling of vacancies in the electoral college, and that if any State failed to choose electors on the regular day, that they might be appointed on a later day in such manner as the State might, by law, direct.
Nearly all of the State legislatures have conferred on the college itself the power of filling vacancies.
Function of Electors.--The steps prescribed by the Const.i.tution must still be followed, although we know, long before the electors cast their votes, who the next President will be. The actual function of the electors is given in Amendment XII, as follows:--
_The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign, and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted;--the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then, from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right to choose shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other const.i.tutional disability of the President.--The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then, from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person const.i.tutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States._
Voting of the Electors.--The formal election of President takes place on the second Monday in January, when the electors meet at their various State capitals and cast their votes. Separate ballots are given for Vice-President. Three separate sealed lists of the results are then prepared. Two of these are sent to the President of the Senate, one by mail and the other by special messenger. The third is deposited with the United States district judge of the district in which the electors meet.
On the second Wednesday in February the votes are opened by the President of the Senate, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, and counted. That person having a majority of the electoral votes case for President is declared to be duly elected. The one who has a majority of the electoral votes cast for Vice-President is also elected to that office.
Election of President by the House of Representatives.--In case no Presidential candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the election goes to the House of Representatives, as is provided in the amendment we are considering. Here the three candidates having the highest number of votes are alone considered.
The voting is by States. In 1825 John Quincy Adams was elected President in this way. He had fewer popular and fewer electoral votes than Andrew Jackson, but he received the votes of thirteen out of twenty-four States in the House.
Choice of Vice-President by the Senate.--The Senate is called on to select the Vice-President in case no candidate has received a majority of the electoral votes. The two candidates having the highest number of votes are considered. The only instance of the election of a Vice-President in this way occurred in 1837.
Disputed Returns, Election of 1876.--Disputes have arisen, from time to time, over some of the returns of the electoral votes.
The most notable contest was that over the returns from Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon, in 1877. If the twenty-one electoral votes from these States should be counted for the Republican candidates, they would be elected. Should just one of those votes be given to the Democratic nominees, the Republicans would lose the election. Now the Senate at this time was Republican, and the House Democratic, and therefore no satisfactory adjustment could be reached, because of party prejudices. The excitement throughout the country was finally relieved by the agreement on the part of both houses to refer the decision to an "Electoral Commission."
This commission consisted of five judges of the Supreme Court, five representatives, and five senators. After examining the returns, the commission decided, March 2, 1877, by a vote of eight to seven, that Hayes and Wheeler, the Republican candidates, had received the twenty-one votes in dispute, thus giving them one hundred and eighty-five electoral votes, and that Tilden and Hendricks, the Democratic candidates, had received one hundred and eighty-four electoral votes.
In consequence of the grave problem which arose in 1877, Congress pa.s.sed an act February 3, 1887, which provides that any contest in the choice of electors in a State must be decided by the State authorities under the laws of the State.
The Original Method of Choosing the President.--Because Presidents Washington, Adams, and Jefferson for his first term, were chosen by the plan given in the original clause, let us notice, briefly, the method used at that time, and especially the reasons for the change to the present plan.
Section 1, Clause 2. _The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person then having the greatest number of votes shall be President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such a majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President._
According to this clause, we note that the electors voted for two persons without stating which was to be President and which Vice-President. In the official count, the candidate receiving the highest number of votes, provided it was a majority of the whole number of the electoral votes, became President, and the one receiving the next highest became Vice-President.
Election of 1796.--In the election of 1796, John Adams, who received the highest number, seventy-one, out of one hundred and thirty-two electoral votes, was elected President. Thomas Jefferson, his opponent, became Vice-President, having received sixty-eight votes, or the next highest number. Thus there were elected a President of one party and a Vice-President of the opposing party.
Election of 1800.--The election of 1800 also showed the plan to be impracticable. At this time, the Democratic-Republican party was determined to have Mr. Jefferson for President and Aaron Burr for Vice-President. They both received seventy-three votes, a majority of all the votes. But since the number was equal, it devolved upon the House of Representatives to determine whether Jefferson or Burr should be President. For seven days the House was in continuous session, and civil war threatened. On the thirty-sixth ballot, however, Jefferson received the votes of ten States out of sixteen, and was elected.
In order to prevent a recurrence of the conditions which obtained in 1796, or of the dangers incident to a contest like that of 1800, the Twelfth Amendment was proposed by Congress, and, after ratification, was declared in force September 25, 1804. This provides, as we have seen, that the electoral votes must be cast separately for President and Vice-President.
The Presidential Term.--Shall the President hold office for a term of three years, of seven years, or during good behavior? These were questions of great interest in the Const.i.tutional Convention.
A term of seven years with no re-election was agreed upon, but toward the end of the convention the clause as given was adopted.
Re-election of a President.--The Const.i.tution does not limit the number of terms for which a President may be chosen, but the "third-term tradition" has now made it practically impossible for the same man to be elected for more than two terms. This custom was inaugurated by the refusal of President Washington to accept a third term. President Jefferson was also urged to stand for a third term, but he, too, preferred to retire to private life as Washington had done. The adherents of General Grant strove to break down this precedent in 1880 but were defeated. Although President Roosevelt had served a part of a term and one full term the argument of a third term was brought against him.
A Longer Term.--It is frequently urged that the Const.i.tution should be amended in such a manner as to provide for a term of six or seven years for the President, with no re-election. Among the reasons for this change are the following: (1) a new President has most of his time, for months, at the beginning of his term, consumed in hearing the claims of applicants for office, and in making appointments; (2) there is danger that he may be influenced in his official actions through desire to secure a second term; (3) the commercial depression that usually exists during a campaign would thus come less frequently. These arguments may be used in opposition to such a change: (1) in the case of an inefficient President, the short term is to be preferred; (2) the Presidential campaign is of value, in that the attention of Americans generally is for a time fixed on the problems connected with the conduct of our government. It furnishes the opportunity for imparting to our citizens many lessons in their political education.
Qualifications for President and Vice-President.--The qualifications for President and Vice-President are naturally the same, and are as follows:--
Section 1, Clause 4. _No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Const.i.tution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States._
Vacancies.--The chief reason for creating the office of Vice-President seems to have been to provide for the emergency of a vacancy in the Presidency.
Section 1, Clause 5. _In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected._
Presidential Succession.--In 1886 Congress provided that in case of the death, resignation, or disability[41] of both President and Vice-President, the succession should be in the following order: Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior. The Secretary of Agriculture was added in 1889.
[Footnote 41: What const.i.tutes disability has not been settled.
President Garfield performed only the single executive act of signing an extradition paper from July 2 to September 19, 1881. The fact of his inability to discharge the duties of President was not formally established. Nor was there declared disability in the case of President McKinley, between September 6 and the day of his death, September 14, 1901.]
Salary of the President.--Section I, Clause 6. _The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he may have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States or any of them._
In 1909 the salary of the President was changed from $50,000 to $75,000 a year. The custom has been established that no President shall receive a gift from any civil body, such as a city council, a State legislature, or a foreign state. In addition to his salary, the President is provided with an "executive mansion," the "White House," which is furnished at the expense of the government. The Vice-President receives $12,000 annually.
Salaries of Foreign Rulers.--The salary paid our President is small when we compare it with the grants made to European rulers.
In 1901 the English government voted some $4,000,000 for the annual use of the royal household. The Czar of Russia receives $6,500,000 annually, in addition to revenues derived from 1,000,000 square miles of crown domains. The President of France receives $231,600 annually.
Inauguration Day.--One of the most notable of our civic festivals occurs on the fourth of March[42] after the Presidential election. Then thousands of people go to Washington to witness the inaugural exercises, by which the President and Vice-President are formally invested with their offices. The Const.i.tution provides that the President shall take the following oath of office before entering on his duties:--
Section I, Clause 7. _I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Const.i.tution of the United States._