2. All freemen shall have a surety who would hand him over to justice for his offenses or pay the damages or fines due. If an accused man fled, his surety would have a year to find him to obtain reimburs.e.m.e.nt.
The Conquerer proclaimed that:
No cattle shall be sold except in towns and before three witnesses.
For the sale of ancient chattels, there must be a surety and a warrantor.
No man shall be sold over the sea. (This ended the slave trade at the port of Bristol.)
The death penalty for persons tried by court is abolished.
- Judicial Procedure -
"Ecclesiastical" courts were created for bishops to preside over cases concerning the cure of souls and criminal cases, in which the ordeal was used. When the Conquerer did not preside over this court, an appeal could be made to him.
The hundred and county courts now sat without clergy and handled only "civil" cases. They were conducted by the King"s own appointed sheriff.
Only freemen and not bound villeins had standing in this court. They continued to transact their business in the English language.
The local jurisdictions of thegns who had grants of sac and soke or who exercised judicial functions among their free neighbors were now called "manors" under their new owners, who conducted a manor court.
The Conquerer"s Royal Court was called the "Curia Regis". When the Conquerer wished to determine the national laws, he summoned twelve elected representatives of each county to declare on oath the ancient lawful customs and law as they existed in the time of the popular King Edward the Confessor. The recording of this law was begun. A person could spend months trying to catch up with the Royal Court to present a case. Sometimes the Conquerer sent the justiciar or commissioners to hold his Royal Court in the various districts. The commissioner appointed groups of local men to give a collective verdict upon oath for each trial he conducted. The Conquerer allowed, on an ad hoc basis, certain high-level people such as bishops and abbots and those who made a large payment, to have land disputes decided by an inquiry of recognitors. Besides royal issues, the Curia Regis heard appeals from lower court decisions. It used English, Norman, feudal, Roman, and canon law legal principles to reach a decision, and was flexible and expeditious.
A dispute between a Norman and an English man over land or a criminal act could be decided by trial by combat [battle]. Each combatant first swore to the truth of his cause and undertook to prove by his body the truth of his cause by making the other surrender by crying "craven"
[craving forgiveness]. The combatants used weapons like pickaxes and shields. Presumably the man in the wrong would not fight as well because he was burdened with a guilty conscience. Although this trial was thought to reflect G.o.d"s will, it favored the physically fit and adept person. After losing the trial by combat, the guilty person would be punished appropriately.
London had its own traditions. All London citizens met at its folkmote, which was held three times a year to determine its public officers, to raise matters of public concern, and to make ordinances. Its criminal court had the power of outlawry as did the county courts. Trade, land, and other civil issues were dealt with by the Hustings Court, which met every Monday in the Guildhall. The city was divided into wards, each of which was under the charge of an elected alderman [elder man]. (The election was by a small governing body and the most wealthy and reputable men and not a popular election.) The aldermen had special knowledge of the law and a duty to declare it at the Hustings Court.
Each alderman also conducted wardmotes in his ward and decided criminal and civil issues between its residents. Within the wards were the guilds of the city.
The Normans, as foreigners, were protected by the king"s peace. The entire hundred was the ultimate surety for murder and would have to pay a "murdrum" fine of 31 pounds [46 marks] for the murder of any Norman, if the murderer was not apprehended by his lord within a few days. The reaction to this was that the murderer mutilated the corpse to make identification of ethnicity impossible. So the Conquerer ordered that every murder victim was a.s.sumed to be Norman unless proven English. This began a court custom in murder cases of first proving the victim to be English.
The Royal Court decided this case: "At length both parties were summoned before the King"s court, in which there sat many of the n.o.bles of the land of whom Geoffrey, bishop of Coutances, was delegated by the King"s authority as judge of the dispute, with Ranulf the Vicomte, Neel, son of Neel, Robert de Usepont, and many other capable judges who diligently and fully examined the origin of the dispute, and delivered judgment that the mill ought to belong to St. Michael and his monks forever. The most victorious King William approved and confirmed this decision."
- - - Chapter 5 - - -
- The Times: 1100-1154 -
King Henry I, son of William the Conquerer, furthered peace between the Normans and native English by his marriage to a niece of King Edward the Confessor called Matilda. She married him on condition that he grant a charter of rights undoing some practices of the past reigns of William I and William II. Peace was also furthered by the fact that Henry I had been born in England and English was his native tongue. The private wars of lords were now replaced by less serious mock battles.
Henry was a shrewd judge of character and of the course of events, cautious before taking action, but decisive in carrying out his plans.
He was faithful and generous to his friends. He showed a strong practical element of calculation and foresight. Although illiterate, he was intelligent and a good administrator. He had an efficient intelligence gathering network and an uncanny knack of detecting hidden plans before they became conspiratorial action. He made many able men of inferior social position n.o.bles, thus creating a cla.s.s of career judges and administrators in opposition to the extant hereditary aristocracy.
He loved books and built a palace at Oxford to which he invited scholars for lively discussion. Euclid"s "Elements" ", which deduced from axioms the properties of lines, circles, and spheres, was introduced into England.
Queen Matilda served as regent of the kingdom in Henry"s absence, as William"s queen had for him. Both queens received special coronation apart from their husbands; they held considerable estates which they administered through their own officers, and were frequently composed of escheated honors. Matilda was learned and a literary patron. She founded an important literary and scholastic center. Her compa.s.sion was great and her charities extensive. In London she founded several almshouses and a caregiving infirmary for lepers. These were next to small monastic communities. She also had new roads and bridges built.
Henry issued charters restoring customs which had been subordinated to royal impositions by previous Kings, which set a precedent for later Kings. His coronation charter describes certain property rights he restored after the oppressive reign of his brother, William II.
"Henry, King of the English, to Samson the bishop, and Urse of Abbetot, and to all his barons and faithful va.s.sals, both French and English, in Worcestershire, greeting.
[1.] Know that by the mercy of G.o.d and by the common counsel of the barons of the whole kingdom of England I have been crowned king of this realm. And because the kingdom has been oppressed by unjust exactions, I now, being moved by reverence towards G.o.d and by the love I bear you all, make free the Church of G.o.d; so that I will neither sell nor lease its property; nor on the death of an archbishop or a bishop or an abbot will I take anything from the demesne of the Church or from its va.s.sals during the period which elapses before a successor is installed.
I abolish all the evil customs by which the kingdom of England has beunjustly oppressed. Some of those evil customs are here set forth.
[2.] If any of my barons or of my earls or of any other of my tenants shall die his heir shall not redeem his land as he was wont to do in the time of my brother, but he shall henceforth redeem it by means of a just and lawful "relief". Similarly the men of my barons shall redeem their lands from their lords by means of a just and lawful "relief".