THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND.--The _Anabasis_, the princ.i.p.al work of _Xenophon_, describes the retreat from the Tigris to the coast of Asia Minor, of a body of ten thousand mercenary Greek troops,--a retreat effected under his own masterly leadership. The Persian Empire, now in a process of decay, was torn with civil strife. _Xerxes_ and his eldest son had been murdered (465 B.C.).
The story of several reigns which follow is full of tales of treason and fratricide. On the death of _Darius II_. (Darius Nothus) (423-404 B.C.), the younger _Cyrus_ undertook to dethrone his brother _Artaxerxes II_., and for that purpose organized, in Asia Minor, a military expedition, made up largely of hired Greek troops. At _Cunaxa_, not far from Babylon, Cyrus fell in the combat with his brother. The Persians enticed the Greek generals to come into their camp, and slew them. _Xenophon_, an Athenian volunteer who had accompanied the army, conducted the retreat of his countrymen, with whom he encountered incredible hardships in the slow and toilsome journey through _Armenia_ to _Trapezus_ (Trebizond), and thence to _Byzantium_. The story of this march, through snow, over rugged mountains, and across rapid currents, is told in the _Anabasis_. A very striking pa.s.sage is the description of the joy of the Greeks when from a hilltop they first descried the Black Sea. The soldiers shouted, "The sea! the sea!" and embraced one another and their officers.
THE CORINTHIAN WAR AND THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS.--_Tissaphernes_, the antagonist and successor of the younger _Cyrus_, was Persian governor in Asia Minor, and set out to bring under the yoke the Ionic cities which had espoused the cause of Cyrus. Sparta came to their aid, and King _Agesilaus_ defeated the Persians near the _Pactolus_ (395 B.C.). The Persians stirred up an enemy nearer home, by the use of gold, and the _Boeotians, Corinthians_, and _Argives_, jealous of Sparta, and resentful at the tyranny of her governors (harmosts), and joined by Athens, took up arms against the Lacedaemonians. _Lysander_ fell in battle with the allies (395 B.C.). The course of the war in which Conon, the Athenian commander, destroyed the Spartan fleet at _Cnidus_, made it necessary to recall Agesilaus. His victory at _Coronea_ (394 B.C.) did not avail to turn the tide in favor of Sparta. Conon rebuilt the long walls at Athens with the a.s.sistance of Persian money. The issue of the conflict was the _Peace of Antalcidas_ with Persia (387 B.C.). The Grecian cities of Asia Minor were given up to the Persians, as were the islands of _Clazomenae_ and _Cyprus_. With the exception of _Lemnos, Imbros_, and _Scyros_, which the Athenians were to control, all of the other states and islands were to be free and independent. This was a great concession to Persia. Greek union was broken up: each state was left to take care of itself as it best could. Antalcidas cared little for his country: his treaty was the natural result of Spartan aggressiveness and selfishness.
CONTEST OF THEBES AND SPARTA.--The Spartans had fallen away from the old rules of life ascribed to Lycurgus. They were possessed by a greed for gold. There were extremes of wealth and poverty among them. After the treaty of Antalcidas, they still lorded it over other states, and were bent on governing in Peloponnesus. At length they were involved in a contest with _Thebes_. This was caused by the seizure of the _Cadmeia_, the Theban citadel, by the Spartan _Phoebidas_ acting in conjunction with an aristocratic party in Thebes (383 B.C.). The Theban democrats, who, under _Pelopidas_, made Athens their place of rendezvous, liberated Thebes, and expelled the Spartans from the Cadmeia. Hostile attempts of Sparta against Athens induced the Athenians to form a new confederacy (or symmachy) composed of seventy communities (378 B.C.); and, after they had gained repeated successes on the sea, the two states concluded peace. Athens had become alarmed at the increased power of Thebes, and was ready to go over to the side of Sparta, her old enemy. It was a feeling in favor of a balance of power like that which had prompted Sparta at the close of the Peloponnesian war, to refuse to consent to the destruction of Athens, which Thebes and Corinth had desired. _Cleombrotus_, king of Sparta, again invaded Boeotia. The princ.i.p.al Boeotian leader was _Epaminondas_, one of the n.o.blest patriots in all Grecian history,--in his disinterested spirit and self-government resembling Washington. The Spartan king was defeated by him in the great battle of _Leuctra_ (371 B.C.), and was there slain. At this time the rage of party knew no bounds. The wholesale ma.s.sacre of political antagonists in a city was no uncommon occurrence.
THEBAN HEGEMONY.--The victory of Leuctra gave the hegemony to Thebes. Three times the Boeotians invaded the Spartan territory. They founded _Megalopolis_ in Arcadia, to strengthen the Arcadians against their Lacedaemonian a.s.sailants (370 B.C.). They also revived the _Messenian_ power, recalled the Messenians who had long been in exile, and founded the city of _Messene_. In the battle of _Mantinea_ (362 B.C.), _Epaminondas_, though victorious against the Spartans and their allies, was slain. Peace followed among the Grecian states, Sparta alone refusing to be a party to it. In the course of this intestine war, the Thebans had broken up the new maritime sway gained by them.
PERIOD III. THE MACEDONIAN ERA.
CHAPTER I. PHILIP AND ALEXANDER.
THE MACEDONIANS.--The Greeks, exhausted by long-continued war with one another, were just in a condition to fall under the dominion of _Macedonia_, the kingdom on the north which had been ambitious to extend its power. The Macedonians were a mixed race, partly Greek and partly Illyrian. Although they were not acknowledged to be Greeks, their kings claimed to be of Greek descent, and were allowed to take part in the Olympian games. At first an inland community, living in the country, rough and uncultivated, made up mostly of farmers and hunters, they had been growing more civilized by the efforts of their kings to introduce Greek customs. _Archelaus_ (413-399 B.C.) had even attracted Greek artists and poets to his court. At the same time they were exerting themselves to extend their power to the sea. The people were hardy and brave. When _Epaminondas_ died, _Philip_ (359-336 B.C.) was on the Macedonian throne. He had lived three years at _Thebes_, and had learned much from Epaminondas, the best strategist and tactician of his day. The decline of public spirit in Greece had led the states to rely very much on mercenary troops, whose trade was war. Philip had a well-drilled standing army. Every thing was favorable to the gratification of his wish to make himself master of Greece. First he aimed to get possession of Greek cities in _Chalcidice_, of which _Olynthus_ was the chief. The Athenians had towns in that region, besides _Amphipolis_, which was formerly theirs. Philip contrived to make the Olynthians his allies; and then, crossing the river _Strymon_, he conquered the western part of _Thrace_, where there were rich gold mines. There, for purposes of defense, he founded the city of _Philippi_.
THE SACRED WAR.--A pretext for interfering in the affairs of Greece, Philip found in the _Sacred War_ in behalf of the temple of Delphi, which had been forced to loan money to the _Phocians_ during a war waged by them against Thebes, to throw off the Theban supremacy. _Athens_ and _Sparta_ joined the Phocians. The Thessalian n.o.bles sided with Philip. He gained the victory in his character of champion of the _Amphictyonic Council_, and took his place in that body, in the room of the Phocians (346 B.C.). But this was not accomplished until he had made peace with the Athenians, so that there was no Athenian force at the pa.s.s of Thermopylae to resist his progress.
DEMOSTHENES.--The Athenians had placed themselves at the head of an _Aegean League_, and, had they managed with more spirit and prudence, they might have checked Philip. There was one man, worthy of the best days of Greece, who penetrated the designs of Philip, and exerted his great powers to stimulate his countrymen to a timely resistance. This was _Demosthenes_ (385-322 B.C.). He was the prince of the school of orators who had sprung up in these troublous times. Overcoming natural obstacles, he had trained himself with such a.s.siduity that a place at the head of all orators, ancient and modern, is generally conceded to him. He was a great statesman, moved by a patriotic spirit: his speeches were for the welfare and salvation of the state. In 358 B.C., a war broke out between Athens and its maritime allies, in which Athens was unsuccessful. It was on the conquest of Thessaly by Philip, that _Demosthenes_ made against him the first of that series of famous speeches known as _Philippics_ (351 B.C.). In vain he urged the Athenians to rescue Olynthus. The inefficiency of the aid rendered, enabled Philip to conquer and destroy that city, and to sell its inhabitants as slaves (348 B.C.). Thirty cities he destroyed, and annexed all _Chalcidice_ to Macedon. A Macedonian party was formed at Athens, the foremost leader of which was _Aeschines_, not a good citizen, but an orator only second in rank to Demosthenes. They contended that it was futile to resist the advance of the Macedonian power. Demosthenes went at the head of an emba.s.sy to the Peloponnesian states which had taken sides with Philip, but his efforts to dissuade them from this suicidal policy were unavailing. What he wanted was a union of all Greeks against the common enemy, who was bent on robbing them of their liberty. He gathered, at length, a strong party about him at Athens. The overtures of peace from Philip, who was prosecuting his conquests in Thrace, were rejected. Athenian forces obliged the king to give up the siege of _Byzantium_ (341 B.C.). The consequent enlarged influence of Demosthenes was used by him to secure an increase of the fund for carrying on the war. But Philip had his paid supporters in all the Greek states. _Aeschines_ at Athens proved an efficient helper. A deputy at the _Amphictyonic Council_, in 338 B.C., he contrived to bring about another "holy war" against _Amphissa_ in Locris, the end being to give Philip the command. Philip seized _Elatea_, in the east of Phocis, which commanded the entrance to Boeotia and Attica. Dismay spread through Greece. _Demosthenes_ roused the Athenian a.s.sembly, where all were silent through fear, to confront Philip boldly, and himself went to Thebes, which he induced to form an alliance with Athens. But the allies were defeated at the fatal battle of _Chaeronea_ (August, 338 B.C.), where _Alexander_, Philip"s youthful son, decided the fortune of the day by vanquishing the Theban "sacred band." Philip treated the Thebans with great severity. He placed a garrison in the _Cadmeia_. To Athens he granted favorable terms. Marching into Peloponnesus, he took from Sparta a large part of its territory, and apportioned it to the Messenians, Argives, and Arcadians. At a national a.s.sembly at _Corinth_, from which the Spartans were absent, Philip caused himself to be created leader of the Grecian forces against Persia, with the powers of a dictator. Each of the Greek states was to retain its autonomy; and a congress, to meet at Corinth, was to settle differences among them. Two years after the battle of Chaeronea, at the marriage festival of his daughter with the king of Epirus, Philip was a.s.sa.s.sinated by means of a conspiracy, in which his queen is thought to have been a partner.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.--Alexander was twenty years old when his father died. His bodily health and vigor qualified him for combats and toils which few soldiers in his army could endure. His energy, rapidity, and military skill lift him to a level with Hannibal and the foremost commanders of any age. He was not without a generous appreciation of art and literature. The great philosopher, _Aristotle_, was one of his tutors. For the eminent authors and artists of Greece he cherished a warm admiration. But his temper was pa.s.sionate and imperious. _Homer_ was his delight, and in Homer he took Agamemnon for his model; but the direst act of cruelty done by Achilles--that of dragging _Hector_ after his chariot--he exceeded when he dragged _Batis_, a general who had opposed him, at the tail of his chariot through the streets of _Gaza_. Especially when his pa.s.sions were inflamed by strong drink,--as at banquets, occasions where Macedonian princes before him had been wont to drink to excess,--he was capable of savage deeds.
ALEXANDER IN GREECE: HIS ARMY.--At a congress in Corinth, Alexander was recognized as the leader and general of Greece. In the spring of 335 B.C., he made a campaign against the barbarous peoples north of Macedonia,--the Thracians, the Getae, and the Illyrians. A false report of his death led to an uprising of the Greeks. Quickly returning, he took vengeance on the _Thebans_ by razing their city to the ground, sparing only the temples and _Pindar"s_ house, and by selling its thirty thousand inhabitants into slavery. Athens prayed for pardon, which was granted, even the demand for the surrender of Demosthenes and other leaders being revoked. All resistance in Greece was over. Alexander"s hands were free to complete his preparations for the task of conquering the Persian Empire. His army was strong through its valor and discipline rather than its numbers. The Macedonian _phalanx_ was the most effective force which had hitherto been used in war. It was made up of foot soldiers drawn up in ranks, three feet apart, with spears twenty-one feet in length, held fifteen feet from the point. The length of the spears and the projection of so many in front of the first rank, gave to the phalanx a great advantage, although such a body of troops could be turned around with difficulty. Alexander began his battles with other troops, and used the phalanx for the decisive charge. Only native Macedonians served in the phalanx. This was the case, also, with _the Guard_, a body of infantry, and with two divisions of cavalry, one clad in heavy armor, and one in light. With these troops were Greek and barbarian soldiers, infantry and cavalry, and a division for hurling stones, which was used not only in sieges, but also in battles. There was a band of young Macedonian soldiers called _pages_, also a body-guard selected from these by promotion; and out of this the king chose his generals. The army consisted of not more than forty thousand men, but it was so organized as to be completely under the control of Alexander; and he was a military genius of the first order.
THE CAMPAIGN OF ALEXANDER: TO THE BATTLE OF ISSUS.--In the spring of 334 B.C., Alexander crossed the _h.e.l.lespont_ at _Abydos_. At _Ilium_ (Troy) he performed various rites in honor of the heroes of the Trojan war, his romantic sympathy with whom was the princ.i.p.al tie between him and the Greeks. A Persian army disputed the pa.s.sage of the _Granicus_. He was the first to enter the river, and in the battle displayed the utmost personal valor. His decisive victory caused nearly the whole of _Asia Minor_ to submit to him. _Halicarna.s.sus_, and the few other towns that held out, were taken by storm. At _Tarsus_ he was cured by his physician, Philip, of a dangerous fever, brought on by a bath in the chilly waters of the river _Cydnus_. _Darius III_., the king of Persia, with a large army, approaching from the Euphrates, encountered him in a valley near _Issus_, in Cilicia. There (333 B.C.) was fought the memorable battle which settled the fate of the Persian Empire. The host of Darius was defeated with great slaughter; and his camp, with his treasures and his family, fell into the hands of the victor.
TO THE BATTLE OF ARBELA.--After the victory of Issus, _Syria_ and _Phoenicia_ submitted, except _Tyre_, which was captured after a siege of seven months. Two thousand of the inhabitants were hung on the walls, and thirty thousand were sold into slavery. Gaza resisted, and there Alexander was severely wounded. After it was taken, he entered _Egypt_, and founded the city of ALEXANDRIA, in its consequences one of the most memorable acts of his life. He marched through _Lybia_ to the temple of _Jupiter Ammon_ (331 B.C.). Having thus subdued the lands on the west, he pa.s.sed through _Palestine_ and _Syria_ by way of _Damascus_, crossed the _Euphrates_ and the _Tigris_, and met the Persian army in the plains of Gaugamela, near _Arbela_,--an army more than twenty times as large as his own (October, 331 B.C.). After a hotly contested battle, the Persians were routed, and their empire destroyed.
TO THE INVASION OF INDIA.--_Babylon_ and _Susa_ with all their treasures, and, afterwards, _Persepolis_ and _Pasargadae_, fell into the conqueror"s hands. He set fire to Persepolis, and sold its male inhabitants into slavery. He pursued _Darius_ into Media, Hyrcania, and Parthia, where the flying king was murdered by _Bessus_, one of his own n.o.bles, that he might not give himself up to Alexander. He then marched east and south through _Persia_ and the modern _Afghanistan_. He tarried at _Prophthasia_ (Furrah) for two months. Here it was that he charged _Philotas_, one of his best officers, with a conspiracy against his life, and put him to death; and after this he ordered the murder of _Parmenio_, his best general, who had been a companion in arms of King Philip. Founding cities in different places as he advanced, he crossed the _Oxus_, marched through _Sogdiana_, and crossed the _Jaxartes_ (Sir-Daria). While at _Samarcand_, in a drunken revel, he slew _c.l.i.tus_, the friend who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus. In a fit of remorse he went without food or drink for three days. In _Bactra_, the capital of _Bactria_, he married _Roxana_, a princess of the country. By this time his head was turned by his unexampled victories, conquests and power. He began to demand of his followers the cringing adulation that was paid to Oriental monarchs, and when it was denied was ready to inflict summary vengeance.
TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER.--Crossing the eastern Caucasus (the _Hindu-Kush_), Alexander moved down the right bank of the _Indus_, subduing the tribes whom he met in his path. On the further side of the _Hydaspes_, he met the Indian prince _Porus_, whom he defeated and captured, and converted into an ally. He continued his marches and his line of victories as far as the river _Hyphasis_. Here the Macedonian troops would go no farther.
Alexander turned back (327 B.C.), and with his army and fleet moved down the _Hydaspes_ to the _Indus_, and down the _Indus_ to the sea. _Nearchus_, his admiral, sailed along the sh.o.r.e to the west, while Alexander conducted the rest of the army amid infinite hardships through the desert, and finally met him on the coast. In the beginning of the year 325, he reached _Susa_. Here he plainly manifested his purpose of combining Macedonia and Greece with the East in one great empire. He adopted the Persian costume and ceremonial, and married both the daughter of _Darius III_. and the sister of _Artaxerxes III_. He prevailed on eighty of his Macedonian officers and ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to take Persian wives. For himself he exacted the homage paid to a divinity. These measures, looking to the amalgamation of Macedon and Greece with the East on terms of equality, were most offensive to the old comrades and subjects of Alexander. He was obliged to quell a mutiny, which he accomplished with consummate address and courage (July, 324 B.C.). In the marshes about Babylon, a place which he intended to make his capital, he contracted a fever, which was aggravated by daily revels, and which terminated his life (323 B.C.), after a reign of twelve years and eight months.
INFLUENCE OF ALEXANDER.--The Persian Empire, when it was attacked by Alexander, was a gigantic body without much vitality. Yet to overcome it, there was requisite not only the wonderful military talents of the conqueror, but the vigilance and painstaking which equally characterized him. He has been called "an adventurer." To fight and to conquer, and to spread his dominion wherever there were countries to subdue, seems to have been his absorbing purpose. The most substantial result of his exploits, which read more like fable than authentic history, was to spread _h.e.l.lenism_,--to diffuse at least a tincture of Greek civilization, together with some acquaintance with the Greek language, over the lands of the East. This was a most important work in its bearing on the subsequent history of antiquity, and more remotely on the history of all subsequent times.
CHAPTER II. THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER.
DIVISIONS OF THE EMPIRE.--Alexander left no legitimate children. The child of Roxana, _Alexander the Younger_, was born after his father"s death. The empire naturally fell to his princ.i.p.al generals, of whom _Perdiccas_, having command of the great army of Asia, had the chief power. He was obliged to content his military colleagues, which he did by giving to them provinces. The princ.i.p.al regents, or guardians, were soon reduced to three,--_Antipater_ and _Craterus_ in Europe, and _Perdiccas_. The government was carried on in the name of Roxana"s son, and of _Arrhidaeus_, the half-brother of Alexander. But _Perdiccas_ soon found that each general was disposed to be in fact a king in his own dominion. He formed the plan of seizing the empire for himself. This combined the satraps against him. Perdiccas was supported by his friend _Eumenes_, but had against him _Antipater_ and _Craterus_, the other regents, and the powerful governors, _Ptolemy Lagi_ in Egypt, and _Antigonus_ in Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphilia (322 B.C.). There followed a series of wars lasting for twenty-two years, involving numerous changes of sovereignty, and fresh part.i.tions of territory. The rebellious satraps triumphed over the royalists, whose aim was to keep the empire intact for the family of Alexander. The ambition of _Antigonus_ to make himself the sole ruler, led to a league against him (315 B.C.). In a treaty of peace, _Ca.s.sander_, the son of Antipater, was to retain the government of Macedonia. By him _Roxana_ and the young _Alexander_ were put to death. In a second war against Antigonus, in which, as before, he was supported by his son, _Demetrius Poliorcetes_, they were completely defeated in the battle of _Ipsus_, in Phrygia (301 B.C.). Antigonus was slain: Demetrius fled to Greece. The result of this protracted contest was, that the Macedonian empire was broken into three princ.i.p.al states,--Macedonia under the _Antigonidae_, the descendants of Antigonus; Egypt under the _Ptolemies_; Syria under the _Seleucidae_. Besides these, there were the smaller kingdoms of _Pergamon_ and of _Bithynia_. Other states broke off from the Syrian realm of the Seleucidae.
I. THE KINGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES.
PTOLEMY LAGI (323-285 B.C.).--When _Alexander_ transferred the seat of power in Egypt from Memphis to _Alexandria_, he accomplished results which he could not at all foresee. The Greek element became predominant in Egyptian affairs. A great stimulus was given to commerce and to foreign intercourse. The Egyptians themselves entered zealously into industrial pursuits. _Ptolemy Lagi_ (Soter), the first of the new sovereigns, was wise enough to guard his own territory, and even to establish his rule in _Palestine_, _Phoenicia_, and _Coele-Syria_, but to avoid extensive schemes of conquest. Cyrenaica, on the west of Egypt, and the intermediate Lybian tribes, he subdued. Ptolemy was an absolute monarch, but he retained prominent features in the old Egyptian administrative system, gave offices to Egyptians, and protected their religion. The most important civil stations and all military offices were reserved for Graeco-Macedonians: Alexandria was a Greek city. From the beginning he fostered learning and science. He set to work to collect a great library in a building connected with his palace. He founded the _Museum_, which was a college of professors. It attracted a great body of students, and became the university of the eastern world. Under the patronage of _Ptolemy_, mathematicians, poets, and critics of high repute flourished. Among the structures raised by him were the lighthouse of vast height on the island of _Pharos_, which was connected with the sh.o.r.e by a mole, or causeway, a mile in length; the _Soma_, or mausoleum, containing the body of _Alexander_; the _Temple of Serapis_, completed by his son; and the _Hippodrome_.
PTOLEMY PHILADELPHIA.--_Ptolemy II_., surnamed _Philadelphus_ (285-247 B.C.), with less talent for war than his father, did much to encourage commerce, and was especially active in his patronage of learning. In this last province he did a greater work than his father. He greatly enlarged the library. He drew learned men to his court from all directions. In his time the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek, in the version called the _Septuagint_. Under his auspices _Manetho_ composed his _History of Egypt_.
PTOLEMY EUERGETES.--_Ptolemy III_. (247-222 B.C.), surnamed _Euergetes_ (the benefactor), was the most enterprising and aggressive of this line of monarchs. Most of his conquests were not permanent, but some of them were. He was a patron of art and of literature. He raised Egypt to the highest pitch of prosperity that she ever enjoyed. The first three Ptolemies whose reigns had covered a century, were followed by a series of incompetent and depraved kings, nine in number.
Ptolemy IV. (Philopator) (222-205 B.C.) was a weak and dissolute prince. In war with _Antiochus III_. (the Great) of Syria, he saved his kingdom; but his own subjects were rebellious and disaffected. _Ptolemy VI_. (Philometor) (181-148 B.C.) was a boy at his accession. His guardians engaged in war with Syria, which would have conquered Egypt but for the interposition of the Romans in his behalf (170 B.C.).
II. MACEDON AND GREECE.
When Alexander was in the far East, the Spartan king, _Agis III_.
(330 B.C.), headed a revolt against _Antipater_; but Agis was vanquished and slain. The death of Alexander kindled the hope of regaining liberty among patriotic Greeks. Athens, under _Demosthenes_ and _Hyperides_, led the way. A large confederacy was formed. _Leosthenes_, the Greek commander, defeated Antipater, and shut him up within the walls of _Lamia_ (in Thessaly). But the Greeks were finally beaten at _Crannon_. Favorable terms were granted to their cities, except Athens and Aetolia. Twenty-one thousand citizens were deported from Athens to Thrace, Italy, and other places. The nine thousand richest citizens, with _Phocion_ at their head, the anti-democratic party, had all power left in their hands. Demosthenes, Hyperides, and other democratic leaders, were proscribed. _Demosthenes_ took refuge in the temple of Neptune, on the little island of _Calaurea_. Finding himself pursued by _Archias_, the officer of Antipater, he took poison, which he had kept by him in a quill, and died. Thus closed the life of an intrepid statesman who had served the cause of liberty and of his country through the direst perils and trials with unfaltering constancy. The democracy again acquired power temporarily, and _Phocion_ was condemned to death.
_Ca.s.sander_, excluded from the Macedonian throne by his father, Antipater, supplanted _Polysperchon_, the regent (316 B.C.). He placed _Demetrius_ of _Phaleron_ in power at Athens over a democracy with restricted prerogatives. He was driven out by _Demetrius Poliorcetes_, who was helped by Athens to possess himself of Macedonia and of the most of Greece, but was compelled (287 B.C.) to give up his throne, which, however, was gained by his son, _Antigonus Gonatas_ (277 B.C.).
THE ACHAEAN LEAGUE.--In 279 B.C., there occurred an irruption of the Gauls into Greece, "one of those vast waves of migration which from time to time sweep over the world." The Macedonian king, _Ptolemy Ceraunus_, was defeated by them in a great battle, captured, and put to death. It was two years before these marauders were driven out, and Macedonia acquired a settled government. This episode in history favored the growth of two leagues--the _Achaean League_ and the _Aetolian League_. In these leagues the several cities gave up to the central council much more power than Greek cities had been in the habit of granting in former unions. The Achaean League was at first made up of ten Achaean cities. About 240 B.C. _Aratus_ of Sicyon, who had brought _Sicyon_ into the league, delivered _Corinth_ from the Macedonians. To free Greek cities from subjection to them, was long a great object of the league. _Peloponnesus_, except Sparta, with _Athens_ and _Aegina_, joined it.
THE AETOLIAN LEAGUE: WAR OF THE LEAGUES.--The rough Aetolians north of the Corinthian Gulf, semi-barbarous in their mode of life, formed another league, and got command of _Phocis_, _Locris_, and _Boeotia_. A praiseworthy attempt at reform was made in Sparta by the king, _Agis IV_. (240 B.C.), who was opposed by the rich, and put to death. _Cleomenes_, his successor, who had the same spirit as Agis, engaged in conflict with the Achaean League, which then called in Macedonian help (223 B.C.). It had to give up to Macedon the Corinthian citadel. _Sparta_ was overthrown. Soon a war between the two leagues broke out, when the Achaeans again called on the Macedonians for aid. These conflicts were followed by the interference of the Romans.
THE EVIL OF FACTION.--The bane of Greece, from the beginning to the end of its history, was the suicidal spirit of disunion. Her power was splintered at many crises, when, if united, it might have saved the land from foreign tyranny. Her resources were drained, generation after generation, by needless local contests. She owed her downfall to the desolating influence of faction.
III. THE SYRIAN KINGDOM.
_Seleucus I_. (Nicator) (312-280 B.C.) was the founder of the Syrian kingdom. From Babylon he extended his dominion to the _Black Sea_, to the _Jaxartes_, and even to the _Ganges_, so far as to make the Indian prince, _Sandracottus_, acknowledge him as suzerain. From Babylon he removed his capital to _Antioch_ on the Orontes, which he founded,--a city destined to be the rival of Alexandria among the cities of the East. The effect of this removal, however, was to loosen his hold upon the Eastern provinces of his empire. _Seleucia_, on the west bank of the Tigris, he likewise founded, which became a great commercial city, but was outstripped later by the Parthian city opposite, _Ctesiphon_. The provinces beyond the Euphrates he committed to his son, _Antiochus_. With him (Antiochus I.) begins the decline of the empire through the influence of Oriental luxury and vice. Under him Syria lost the eastern part of Asia Minor through the invading Gauls, who converted northern Phrygia into _Galatia_, while north-western Lydia became the kingdom of _Pergamon_. _Antiochus II_. (261-246 B.C.) could not hold the provinces in subjection. The Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms began under his reign. _Antiochus III_. (the Great) (223-1876.0.) checked the Parthians and Bactrians, and expelled the Egyptians from Asia, but prepared for the downfall of the Syrian Empire by provoking the hostility of the Romans.
BACTRIA, PARTHIA, PERGAMON, GALATIA.--_Bactria_, after it broke off from Syria, was under Greek princes until, having been weakened by the Parthians, it was conquered by the Scythians (134 B.C.). The _Parthians_ issued, as marauders, from the north border of _Iran_ (256 B.C.), under the _Arsacidae_. They gradually acquired civilization from contact with Greek culture, especially after they established the trading-city of _Ctesiphon_. About 200 B.C. the rulers of _Pontus_ made the Greek city of _Sinope_ their residence, and attained to a high degree of strength under _Mithridates VI_. (the Great). _Pergamon_ became a flourishing state under the Greek rule of _Attalus I_. (241 B.C.). It was famed for its wealth and its trade. _Eumenes II_. (197-159 B.C.) founded the library at Pergamon. For him parchment was improved, if not invented, the Egyptians having forbidden the exportation of papyrus. _Galatia_ was so named from the swarm of Gallic invaders (about 279 B.C.), who, after incursions in the East, which were continued for forty years, settled there, and by degrees yielded to the influences of Greek culture.
PALESTINE: THE MACCABEES: THE IDUMAEAN PRINCES.--_Palestine_ fared comparatively well in the times when the _Ptolemies_ had control. Not so after it fell under the permanent sway of _Syria_. The Jews were surrounded and invaded by Gentilism. On three sides, there were Greek cities. The perils to which their religion was exposed by the heathen without, and by a lukewarm party within, made earnest Jews, the bulk of the people, more inflexible in their adherence to their law and customs. The party of the _Pharisees_ grew out of the intensity of the loyal and patriotic feeling which was engendered in the periods following the exile. The synagogues, centers of worship and of instruction scattered over the land, acted as a bulwark against the intrusion of heathen doctrine and heathen practices. The resistance to these dreaded evils came to a head when the Syrian ruler, _Antiochus Epiphanes_, embittered by his failures in conflict with Egypt, resolved to break down religious barriers among his subjects, and, for this end, to exterminate Jewish worship. In 168 B.C. he set up an altar to Jupiter in the temple at _Jerusalem_, and even compelled Jewish priests to immolate swine. Then the revolt broke out in which the family of Maccabees were the heroic leaders. _Judas Maccabees_ recovered the temple, but fell in battle (160. B.C.). Under his brother _Simon_, victory was achieved, and the independence of the nation secured. The chief power remained in the hands of this family, the _Asmonaean_ princes, until their degeneracy paved the way for Roman intervention under _Pompeius_. His adviser was the _Idumeaean_, _Antipater_, a Jewish proselyte, whose son _Herod_ was made king (39 B.C.).
PHILOSOPHY: THE STOICS AND THE EPICUREANS.--In the Greek world the progress of investigation and reflection tended to produce disbelief in the old mythological system. Social confusion and degeneracy tended to undermine all religious faith. _Pyrrho_ (about 330 B.C.) brought forward the skeptical doctrine, that the highest wisdom is to doubt every thing. _Euhemrus_ (315 B.C.) interpreted the whole mythology as an exaggeration, by imagination and invention, of historical events which form its slender nucleus. With the loss of liberty and the downfall of the Greek states, philosophy became, so to speak, more _cosmopolitan_. It no longer exalted, in the same narrow spirit, the _Greek_ above the _barbarian_. It looked at mankind more as one community. This was a feature of the first of the two princ.i.p.al sects, the _Stoics_, of whom _Zeno_ (about 330 B.C.), and Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.) were the founders. They taught that _virtue_ is the _only good_; that is consists _in living according to nature_; that reason should be dominant, and tranquillity of spirit be maintained by the complete subjugation of feeling. The emotions are to be kept down by the force of and iron will. This is the Stoic _apathy_. The world is wisely ordered: whatever is, is right; yet the cause of all things is not personal. Mankind form on great community, "one city." The _Epicureans_, the second of the prominent sects,--so called from _Epicurus_, their founder (342-370 B.C.),--made _pleasure_ the chief good, which is to be secured by _prudence_, or such a regulation of our desires as will yield, on the whole, the largest fruit of happiness. They believed that the G.o.ds exist, but _denied Providence_.
CULTURE.--In the Greek cities which were founded by the Macedonians, the political life and independence which Greece had enjoued did not exist. The "h.e.l.lenistic" literature and culture, as it is called, which followed, lacked the spontaneous energy and original spirit of the old time. The civilization was that of people not exclusively Greek in blood. _Alexandria_ was its chief seat. Poetry languished. It was _prose_--and prose in the form of _learned inquiries, criticism_, and _science_--that flourished. The path was the same as that marked out by Aristotle. _Theocritus_, born in Syracuse, or Cos, under _Ptolemy I._ (about 320 B.C.), had distinction as a pastoral or bucolic poet. _Euclid_, under _Ptolemy Soter_, systemized geometry. _Archimedes_, who died in 212 B.C., is said to have invented the screw, and was skillful in mechanics. _Eratosthenes_ founded descriptive astronomy and scientific chronology. "The Alexandrian age busied itself with literary or scientific research, and with setting in order what the Greek mind had done in its creative time." After Greece became subject to Rome (146 B.C.) the _Graeco Roman period_ in Greek literature begins. The Greek historian _Polybius_ stands on the border between the Alexandrian age and this next era. He was born about 210 B.C., and died about 128 B.C.
LITERATURE.--Works mentioned on p. 16: Histories of Greece by GROTE (12 vols.) (democratic in his sympathies), E. CURTIUS (5 vols.), THIRLWALL (8 vols.), W. Smith (1 vol.), G. W. c.o.x. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_; Fyffe, _History of Greece_ (primer); Duncker, _History of Greece_ [separately published]; Abbott (2 vols.); Holm (4 vols.); Bury; Oman.
On special periods: The writings of the ancient authors,--Herodotus (Rawlinson"s translation, 4 vols.), Xenophon, THUCYDIDES (Jowett"s translation, 2 vols.), Polybius, Plutarch"s _Lives_. Schafer, _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (3 vols.); DROYSEN, _Geschichte des h.e.l.lenismus_ (3 vols.); E. A. FREEMAN, _History of Federal Government_ (vol. i.); FINLAY, _History of Greece from the Conquest of the Romans_ (7 vols.); G. W. c.o.x, _History of Greece from the Earliest Period to the End of the Persian War_ (2 vols.), and _Lives of Greek Statesmen_ (1 vol.); Freeman, _History of Sicily_ (4 vols.).
On special topics: BOECKH, _The Public Economy of Athens_; Coulanges, _The Ancient City_, etc.: Gll, _Kulturbilder aus h.e.l.las und Rom_ (3 vols.); Guhl and Koner, _The Life of the Greeks and Romans_, etc.; Green, _Greece and Greek Antiquities_ (primer); J. P. Mahaffy, _Social Life in Greece_, also _Rambles in Greece, Old Greek Education_, and _History of Greek Literature_ (2 vols.); Becker, _Charicles_ (a story ill.u.s.trative of Greek life); F. A. Paley, _Greek Wit_ (2 vols.); Church, _Stories from Homer_; Black, _The Wise Men of Greece_; Neares, _Greek Anthology_ [in Ancient Cla.s.sics for English Readers], _Chief Ancient Philosophies_ [Stoicism, etc.] (1 vol., 1880); Muller and Donaldson, _History of the Literature of Ancient Greece_ (3 vols.); Mure, _A Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece_ (5 vols.); Jebb, _Attic Orators_ (2 vols.); Symonds, _The Greek Poets_ (2 vols.); G. F. Schomann, _The Antiquities of Greece_; Gladstone, _Studies on the Homeric Age_ and _Homer_; Lubke, _Outlines of the History of Art_; FERGUSSON, _History of Architecture_; D"Anvers, _Elementary History of Art_; Botsford, _Development of the Athenian Const.i.tution_; W. W. Fowler, _The City-State of the Greeks and Romans_; Gilbert, _Const.i.tutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens_; Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Const.i.tutional History_; H. N. Fowler, _History of Greek Literature_; Marshall, _Short History of Greek Philosophy_; Gardner, _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_; Tarbell, History of Greek Art_; Tozer, _Primer of Cla.s.sical Geography_; Kiepert, _Atlas Antiquus_; Cunningham, _Western Civilization_ (vol. 1); Smith (Wayte & Marindin), _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (2 vols., 1890); Seyffert (Nettleship and Sandys), _Dictionary of Cla.s.sical Antiquities_.
MACEDONIAN ROYAL HOUSES