Outlines of Universal History

Chapter 31

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MILAN.--The fall of Constantinople produced a momentary union in Italy. At _Lodi_, in 1454, the princ.i.p.al states took an oath of perpetual concord,--_Francesco Sforza_, Duke of Milan; _Cosmo de Medici_, to whom Florence had given the name of "Father of his Country;" _Alfonso V._ the Magnanimous, king of Naples and Sicily; the Popes _Calixtus III._ and _Pius II_. (1458-1464). But conflicts soon arose among them. An abortive attempt was made by _John_ of Calabria to deprive _Ferdinand_ of Naples of his inheritance (1462). In 1478 there was a coalition against Florence; in 1482, a coalition against Venice. The Turks made the best use of these quarrels, and captured _Otranto_ (1480), killing or enslaving twelve thousand Christians. The idea of the ancients that _tyrannicide_ is a virtue, whether the master be good or bad, was caught up, and gave rise to conspiracies. At Milan, in 1476, the cruel Duke _Galeazzo Maria_ was a.s.sa.s.sinated by three young men, near the Church of St. Stephen. _Giovanni Galeazzo_, his son, a minor, married a daughter of the king of Naples. But his uncle, _Ludovico il Moro_, had seized on power, and ruled in the name of _Giovanni_ (1480). He imprisoned _Giovanni_ and his young wife; and being threatened by the king of Naples, who had for an ally _Peter de Medici_, he formed an alliance with the Pope and the Venetians; and, not confiding in them, he invited _Charles VIII_. of France to invade the kingdom of Naples. _Genoa_ fell under the yoke of _Ludovico_, who was invested with it by _Charles VIII._ as a fief of France.

VENICE.--_Venice_, which up to the fall of Constantinople had been the strongest of the Italian states, forgot its duties and its dangers in relation to the Turks, in order to aggrandize itself in Italy. It could not avoid war with them, which broke out in 1464. The Turks took _Negropont_ and _Scutari_, pa.s.sed the _Piave_, and the fires kindled by their troops could be seen from Venice. The city made a shameful treaty with them, paying them a large sum (1479). But four years after, it conquered _Cyprus_, which it did not scruple to demand the privilege of holding as a fief of the Sultan of Egypt. The great power of Venice at this time was a cause of alarm to all the other states; but their first combination against it in 1482, in defense of the Duke of Ferrara, was of no effect. In 1454 the government of Venice was placed practically in the hands of three _"inquisitors"_, who exercised despotic power under the old forms, and, by such means as secret trials and executions, maintained internal order and quiet at the cost of liberty. Its soldiers were _condottieri_, under foreign leaders, whom it watched with the utmost jealousy.

FLORENCE.--_Cosmo de Medici_ had continued to be a man of the people. But the members of his family who followed him, while they copied his munificence and public spirit, behaved more as princes. Against _Peter I._ plots were formed by the n.o.bles, but were baffled (1465). _Jerome Riario_, a nephew of _Pope Sixtus IV._, strove with papal help to conquer for himself a princ.i.p.ality in the _Romagna_. The Florentines protested against it as a breach of the treaty of _Lodi_. Hence _Riario_ took part in the conspiracy of the _Pazzi_ against the lives of _Lorenzo_ and _Julian_, sons of Cosmo. They were attacked in the cathedral of Florence by the a.s.sa.s.sins, during the celebration of ma.s.s; _Julian_ was killed, but _Lorenzo_ escaped. The Archbishop of Pisa, one of the accomplices, was hung from his palace window in his pontifical robes. The Pope excommunicated the Medici, and all the Italian states plunged into war. The capture of _Otranto_ at this time by the Turks frightened the princes. _Lorenzo de Medici_ repaired in person to _Naples_ to negotiate with _Ferdinand_, the Pope"s ally, and peace was concluded. _Lorenzo_ earned the name of "The Magnificent" by his lavish patronage of literature and art.

SAVONAROLA.--Against the rule of _Lorenzo_, one voice was raised, that of the Dominican monk _Jerome Savonarola_, a preacher of fervid eloquence, who aimed in his harangues, not only to move individuals to repentance, but to bring about a thorough amendment of public morals, and a political reform in the direction of liberty. In his discourses, however, he lashed the ecclesiastical corruptions of the time, not sparing those highest in power. There were two parties, that of the young n.o.bles,--the _arribiati_, or "enraged;" and that of the people,--the _frateschi_, or friends of the monks. _Savonarola_ proclaimed that a great punishment was impending over Italy. He predicted the invasion from north of the Alps.

FLORENCE IN THE AGE OF LORENZO.--_Florence_ in the time of _Lorenzo_ presented striking points of resemblance to _Athens_ in its most flourishing days. In some respects, the two communities were quite unlike. _Florence_ was not a conquering power, and had no extensive dominion. Civil and military life were distinct from one another: the Italian had come to rely more upon diplomacy than upon arms, and his wealth and mercantile connections made him anxious to avoid war. In Florence, moreover, trade and the mechanic arts were in high repute; industry was widely diffused, and was held in honor. But in equality and pride of citizenship, in versatility of talent and intellectual activity, in artistic genius and in appreciation of the products of art, in refinement of manners, cheerfulness of temper, and a joyous social life, the _Florentines_ in the fifteenth century compare well with the _Athenians_ in the age of _Pericles_. In _Florence_, the burgess or citizen had attained to the standing to which in other countries he only aspired. n.o.bility of blood was counted as of some worth; but where there was not wealth or intellect with it, it was held in comparatively low esteem. Prosperous merchants, men of genius and education, and skillful artisans were on a level with the best. Men of n.o.ble extraction engaged in business. The commonwealth conferred knighthood on the deserving, according to the practice of sovereign princes. Persons of the highest social standing did not disdain to labor in their shops and counting-houses. Frugal in their domestic life, the Florentines strove to maintain habits of frugality by strict sumptuary laws. Limits were set to indulgence in finery, food, etc. The population of Florence somewhat exceeded one hundred thousand. In the neighborhood of the city, there was a mult.i.tude of attractive, richly furnished villas and country-houses. Among the industries in which the busy population was engaged in 1472, a chronicler enumerates eighty-three rich and splendid warehouses of the silk-merchants" guild, thirty-three great banks, and forty-four goldsmiths" and jewellers"

shops. The houses of the rich were furnished with elegance, and decorated with beautiful works of art. There was a great contrast between the simplicity of ordinary domestic life, especially as regards provisions for the table, and the splendor displayed on public occasions, or when guests were to be hospitably entertained. The effect of literary culture was seen in the tone of conversation. It is remarkable that the great sculptors were all goldsmiths, and came out of the workshop. A new generation of painters had a like practical training. In those days, there was a union of manual skill with imagination. The art of the goldsmith preceded and outstripped all the others. In such a society, there was naturally a great relish for public festivals, both sacred and secular. Everywhere in Italy the _Mysteries_, or religious plays, exhibiting events of scriptural history, were in vogue; brilliant pantomimes were enjoyed, and the festivities of the yearly carnival were keenly relished. In the government of Florence, the liberty of the citizens was mainly confined to the choosing of their magistrates. Once in office, they ruled with arbitrary power. There was no liberty of the press, nor was there freedom of discussion in the public councils. It was a community where, with all its cultivation and elegance, morality was at a low ebb.

_Lorenzo_ himself, although "he had all the qualities of poet and statesman, connoisseur and patron of learning, citizen and prince,"

nevertheless "could not keep himself from the epicureanism of the time," and was infected with its weaknesses and vices. "These joyous and refined civilizations," writes M. _Taine_, "based on a worship of pleasure and intellectuality,--Greece of the fourth century, Provence of the twelfth, and Italy of the sixteenth,--were not enduring. Man in these lacks some checks. After sudden outbursts of genius and creativeness, he wanders away in the direction of license and egotism; the degenerate artist and thinker makes room for the sophist and the dilettant."

THE POPES.--The Popes, _Nicholas V._ (1447-1455), a protector of scholars and a cultivated man, and _Pius II._ (1458-1464),

THE OTTOMAN SULTANS.

OTHMAN, 1307-1325.

| +--ORCHAN, 1325-1359.

| | | +--AMURATH I, 1359-1389.

| | | +--BAJEZET I, 1389-1402.

| | | +--Soliman, 1402-1410.

| | | +--Musa, 1410-1413.

| | | +--Issa.

| | | +--MOHAMMED I, 1413-1421.

| | | +--AMURATH II, 1421-1451.

| | | +--MOHAMMED II, 1451-1481.

| | | +--BAJEZET II, 1481-1512.

| | | | | | | | | | | +--MAHMOUD I, | | | | || 1730-1754.

| | | | | | | | | | | +--OTHMAN III, | | | | | 1754-1757.

| | | | | | | | | +--MUSTAPHA III, | | | | | 1757-1774.

| | | | | | | | | +--ABUL HAMID I, | | | | 1774-1789.

| | | | | | | | | +--MAHMOUD II, | | | | 1808-1839.

| | | | | | | | | +--ABDUL MEDJID, | | | | | 1839-1861.

| | | | | | | | | | | +--MURAD V | | | | | | (June 4, | | | | | | 1876- | | | | | | Aug. 31, | | | | | | 1876).

| | | | | | | | | | | +--ABDUL | | | | | HAMID II | | | | | (Aug. 31, | | | | | 1876--).

| | | | | | | | | +--ABDUL AZIZ, | | | | 1861-1876.

| | | | | | | +--SOLIMAN II, | | | | 1687-1691.

| | | | | | | +--ACHMET II, | | | 1691-1695.

| | | | | +--MUSTAPHA I, | | 1617-1618, 1622-1623.

| +--Djem.

| +--Alaeddin.

[Mainly from George"s _Genealogical Tables_.]

zealously but in vain exhorted to crusades against the Turk. _Paul II_. (1464-1471) pursued the same course; but after him, for a half-century, there ensued the deplorable era when the pontiffs were more busied with other interests than with those pertaining to the weal of Christianity. The pontificates of _Sixtus IV_. (1471-1484), _Innocent VIII_. (1484-1492), and especially of _Alexander VI_. (1492-1503), the second pope of the _Borgia_ family, present a lamentable picture of worldly schemes and of "nepotism," as the projects for the temporal advancement of their relatives were termed. The Roman princ.i.p.ality was the prey of petty tyrants, and the theater of wars, and of a.s.sa.s.sinations perpetrated by the knife or with poison. _Alexander VI_. succeeded in subduing or destroying all these petty lords. He was seconded in these endeavors by his son _Caesar Borgia_, brave, accomplished, and fascinating, but a monster of treachery and cruelty. No deed was savage or base enough to cost him any remorse. Hardly had he acquired the _Romagna_, when Pope _Alexander_ died. Although his death was due to Roman fever, legend speedily ascribed it to poison. His son was betrayed, was imprisoned for a time by _Ferdinand_ the Catholic, and, while he was in the service of the King of Navarre, was slain before the castle of _Viana_.

NAPLES.--In Naples, _Ferdinand I_., who was established on his throne by the defeat of his compet.i.tors in 1462, provoked a revolt of his barons by his tyranny, invited them to a festival to celebrate a reconciliation with them, and caused them to be seized at the table, and then to be put to death. He treated the people with equal injustice and cruelty. He allowed the Turks to take _Otranto_ (1480), and the Venetians to take _Gallipoli_ and _Policastro_ (1484).

WEAKNESS OF ITALY.--Italy, at the close of the fifteenth century, with all its proficiency in art and letters, and its superiority in the comforts and elegances of life, was a prey to anarchy. This was especially true after the death of _Lorenzo de Medici_. Diplomacy had become a school of fraud. Battles had come to be, in general, bloodless; but either perfidy, or prison and the dagger, were the familiar instruments of warfare. The country from its beauty, its wealth, and its factious state, was an alluring prize to foreign invaders.

VI. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.

THEIR CONQUESTS.--The empire of _Mohammed II_. (1451-1481) extended from the walls of _Belgrade_, on the Danube, to the middle of Asia Minor. To the east was the Seljukian princ.i.p.ality of _Caramania_ in the center of Asia Minor, and, when that was finally overthrown (1486), _Persia_, whose hostility was inflamed by differences of sect. The conquest of the Greek Empire was achieved by _Mohammed_. _Matthias Corvinus_ (1458-1493), the successor of _Hunyady_, was the greatest of the kings of Hungary, and defended the line of the Danube against the Turkish a.s.saults. For twenty-three years _Scanderbeg_, the intrepid Prince of _Albania_, repulsed all the attacks of the Moslems. It was not until ten years after his death (1467) that his princ.i.p.al stronghold was surrendered to the invaders. The attacks on the Venetians have already been mentioned, as well as the capture of _Otranto_. _Bajazet II_. was more inclined to study than to war: his brother _Djem_, who tried to supplant him, pa.s.sed as a prisoner into the hands of Pope _Alexander VI_. An annual tribute was paid by the Sultan for keeping him from coming back to Turkey; and when, at last, he was released, rumor declared that he had been poisoned. _Selim I_. (1512-1520) entered anew on the path of conquest. He defeated the _Persians_, and made the Tigris his eastern boundary. He annexed to his empire _Mesopotamia_, _Syria_, and _Egypt_. The Sultan now became the commander of the faithful, the inheritor of the prophetic as well as military leadership. The conquest of _Alexandria_ by _Selim_ (1517) inflicted a mortal blow on the commerce of _Venice_, by intercepting its communication with the Orient. The despotic domination of _Selim_ stretched from the Danube to the Euphrates, and from the Adriatic to the cataracts of the Nile. Such was the empire which the Ottoman conqueror handed down to his son, _Soliman I_. the Magnificent (1520-1566). _Mohammed II_. and _Selim_ were the two conquerors by whom the Ottoman Empire was built up. Each of them combined with an iron will and revolting cruelty a taste for science and poetry, and the genius of a ruler. They take rank among the most eminent tyrants in Asiatic history. While they were spreading their dominion far and wide, the popes and the sovereigns of the West did nothing more effectual than to debate upon the means of confronting so great a danger.

RUSSIA.

IVAN III, Va.s.silievitch, 1462-1505, _m._ Sophia, daughter of Thomas Palaeologus, brother of Emperor Constantine XIII.

| +--BASIL IV, 1505-1533.

| | | +--Mary [4] (Marta the Nun), _m._ | Theodore (Philaret the Metropolitan).

| | | +--MICHAEL, 1613-1645.

| | | +--ALEXIS, 1645-1676.

| | | +--THEODORE, 1676-1682.

| | | +--IVAN V, 1682-1689, resigned; d. 1696.

| | (2), CATHARINE I, 1725-1727.

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