Pope changed "grave" in the first line into "gay." Others conjecture "great" and "grand." Steevens says that "grave" means "deadly," and that the word "is often used by Chapman" thus; and one of his two quotations supports his statement; but certainly in Shakespeare the word does not elsewhere bear this sense. It could mean "majestic," as Johnson takes it here. But why should it not have its usual meaning? Cleopatra, we know, was a being of "infinite variety," and her eyes may sometimes have had, like those of some gipsies, a mysterious gravity or solemnity which would exert a spell more potent than her gaiety. Their colour, presumably, was what is called "black"; but surely they were not, like those of Tennyson"s Cleopatra, "_bold_ black eyes." Readers interested in seeing what criticism is capable of may like to know that it has been proposed to read, for the first line of the quotation above, "O this false fowl of Egypt! haggard charmer." [Though I have not cancelled this note I have modified some phrases in it, as I have not much confidence in my suggestion, and am inclined to think that Steevens was right.]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] As this lecture was composed after the publication of my _Shakespearean Tragedy_ I ignored in it, as far as possible, such aspects of the play as were noticed in that book, to the Index of which I may refer the reader.
[2] See Note A.
[3] "Now whilest Antonius was busie in this preparation, Octavia his wife, whom he had left at Rome, would needs take sea to come unto him. Her brother Octauius Caesar was willing vnto it, not for his respect at all (as most authors do report) as for that he might haue an honest colour to make warre with Antonius if he did misuse her, and not esteeme of her as she ought to be."--_Life of Antony_ (North"s Translation), sect. 29. The view I take does not, of course, imply that Octavius had no love for his sister.
[4] See Note B.
[5] The point of this remark is unaffected by the fact that the play is not divided into acts and scenes in the folios.
[6] See Note C.
[7] See Note D.
[8] Of the "good" heroines, Imogen is the one who has most of this spirit of fire and air; and this (in union, of course, with other qualities) is perhaps the ultimate reason why for so many readers she is, what Mr. Swinburne calls her, "the woman above all Shakespeare"s women."
SHAKESPEARE THE MAN
SHAKESPEARE THE MAN
Such phrases as "Shakespeare the man" or "Shakespeare"s personality"
are, no doubt, open to objection. They seem to suggest that, if we could subtract from Shakespeare the mind that produced his works, the residue would be the man himself; and that his mind was some pure impersonal essence unaffected by the accidents of physique, temperament, and character. If this were so, one could but echo Tennyson"s thanksgiving that we know so little of Shakespeare. But as it is a.s.suredly not so, and as "Shakespeare the man" really means the one indivisible Shakespeare, regarded for the time from a particular point of view, the natural desire to know whatever can be known of him is not to be repressed merely because there are people so foolish as to be careless about his works and yet curious about his private life. For my own part I confess that, though I should care nothing about the man if he had not written the works, yet, since we possess them, I would rather see and hear him for five minutes in his proper person than discover a new one.
And though we may be content to die without knowing his income or even the surname of Mr. W. H., we cannot so easily resign the wish to find the man in his writings, and to form some idea of the disposition, the likes and dislikes, the character and the att.i.tude towards life, of the human being who seems to us to have understood best our common human nature.
The answer of course will be that our biographical knowledge of Shakespeare is so small, and his writings are so completely dramatic, that this wish, however natural, is idle. But I cannot think so.
Doubtless, in trying to form an idea of Shakespeare, we soon reach the limits of reasonable certainty; and it is also true that the idea we can form without exceeding them is far from being as individual as we could desire. But it is more distinct than is often supposed, and it _is_ reasonably certain; and although we can add to its distinctness only by more or less probable conjectures, they are not mere guesses, they really have probability in various degrees. On this whole subject there is a tendency at the present time to an extreme scepticism, which appears to me to be justified neither by the circ.u.mstances of the particular case nor by our knowledge of human nature in general.
This scepticism is due in part to the interest excited by Mr. Lee"s discussion of the Sonnets in his _Life_ of Shakespeare, and to the importance rightly attached to that discussion. The Sonnets are lyrical poems of friendship and love. In them the poet ostensibly speaks in his own person and expresses his own feelings. Many critics, no doubt, had denied that he really did so; but they had not Mr. Lee"s knowledge, nor had they examined the matter so narrowly as he; and therefore they had not much weakened the general belief that the Sonnets, however conventional or exaggerated their language may sometimes be, do tell us a good deal about their author. Mr. Lee, however, showed far more fully than any previous writer that many of the themes, many even of the ideas, of these poems are commonplaces of Renaissance sonnet-writing; and he came to the conclusion that in the Sonnets Shakespeare "unlocked," not "his heart," but a very different kind of armoury, and that the sole biographical inference deducible from them is that "at one time in his career Shakespeare disdained no weapon of flattery in an endeavour to monopolise the bountiful patronage of a young man of rank."
Now, if that inference is correct, it certainly tells us something about Shakespeare the man; but it also forbids us to take seriously what the Sonnets profess to tell us of his pa.s.sionate affection, with its hopes and fears, its pain and joy; of his pride and his humility, his self-reproach and self-defence, his weariness of life and his consciousness of immortal genius. And as, according to Mr. Lee"s statement, the Sonnets alone of Shakespeare"s works "can be held to throw any illumination on a personal trait," it seems to follow that, so far as the works are concerned (for Mr. Lee is not specially sceptical as to the external testimony), the only idea we can form of the man is contained in that single inference.
Now, I venture to surmise that Mr. Lee"s words go rather beyond his meaning. But that is not our business here, nor could a brief discussion do justice to a theory to which those who disagree with it are still greatly indebted. What I wish to deny is the presupposition which seems to be frequently accepted as an obvious truth. Even if Mr. Lee"s view of the Sonnets were indisputably correct, nay, if even, to go much further, the persons and the story in the Sonnets were as purely fict.i.tious as those of _Twelfth Night_, they might and would still tell us something of the personality of their author. For however free a poet may be from the emotions which he simulates, and however little involved in the conditions which he imagines, he cannot (unless he is a mere copyist) write a hundred and fifty lyrics expressive of those simulated emotions without disclosing something of himself, something of the way in which he in particular _would_ feel and behave under the imagined conditions.
And the same thing holds in principle of the dramas. Is it really conceivable that a man can write some five and thirty dramas, and portray in them an enormous amount and variety of human nature, without betraying anything whatever of his own disposition and preferences? I do not believe that he could do this, even if he deliberately set himself to the task. The only question is how much of himself he would betray.
One is ent.i.tled to say this, I think, on general grounds; but we may appeal further to specific experience. Of many poets and novelists we know a good deal from external sources. And in these cases we find that the man so known to us appears also in his works, and that these by themselves would have left on us a personal impression which, though imperfect and perhaps in this or that point even false, would have been broadly true. Of course this holds of some writers much more fully than of others; but, except where the work is very scanty in amount, it seems to hold in some degree of all.[1] If so, there is an antecedent probability that it will apply to Shakespeare too. After all, he was human. We may exclaim in our astonishment that he was as universal and impartial as nature herself; but this is the language of religious rapture. If we a.s.sume that he was six times as universal as Sir Walter Scott, which is praise enough for a mortal, we may hope to form an idea of him from his plays only six times as dim as the idea of Scott that we should derive from the Waverley Novels.
And this is not all. As a matter of fact, the great majority of Shakespeare"s readers--lovers of poetry untroubled by theories and questions--do form from the plays some idea of the man. Knowingly or not, they possess such an idea; and up to a certain point the idea is the same. Ask such a man whether he thinks Shakespeare was at all like Sh.e.l.ley, or Wordsworth, or Milton, and it will not occur to him to answer "I have not the faintest notion"; he will answer unhesitatingly No. Ask him whether he supposes that Shakespeare was at all like Fielding or Scott, and he will probably be found to imagine that, while differing greatly from both, he did belong to the same type or cla.s.s.
And such answers unquestionably imply an idea which, however deficient in detail, is definite.
Again, to go a little further in the same direction, take this fact.
After I had put together my notes for the present lecture, I re-read Bagehot"s essay on Shakespeare the Man, and I read a book by Goldwin Smith and an essay by Leslie Stephen (who, I found, had antic.i.p.ated a good deal that I meant to say).[2] These three writers, with all their variety, have still substantially the same idea of Shakespeare; and it is the idea of the competent "general reader" more fully developed. Nor is the value of their agreement in the least diminished by the fact that they make no claim to be Shakespeare scholars. They show themselves much abler than most scholars, and if they lack the scholar"s knowledge they are free from his defects. When they wrote their essays they had not wearied themselves with rival hypotheses, or pored over minutiae until they lost the broad and deep impressions which vivid reading leaves.
Ultra-scepticism in this matter does not arise merely or mainly from the humility which every man of sense must feel as he creeps to and fro in Shakespeare"s prodigious mind. It belongs either to the clever faddist who can see nothing straight, or it proceeds from those dangers and infirmities which the expert in any subject knows too well.
The remarks I am going to make can have an interest only for those who share the position I have tried to indicate; who believe that the most dramatic of writers must reveal in his writings something of himself, but who recognise that in Shakespeare"s case we can expect a reasonable certainty only within narrow limits, while beyond them we have to trust to impressions, the value of which must depend on familiarity with his writings, on freedom from prejudice and the desire to reach any particular result, and on the amount of perception we may happen to possess. I offer my own impressions, insecure and utterly unprovable as I know them to be, simply because those of other readers have an interest for me; and I offer them for the most part without argument, because even where argument might be useful it requires more time than a lecture can afford. For the same reason I shall a.s.sume, without attempting to define it further, and without dilating on its implications, the truth of that general feeling about Shakespeare and Fielding and Scott.
But, before we come to impressions at all, we must look at the scanty store of external evidence: for we may lay down at once the canon that impressions derived from the works must supplement and not contradict this evidence, so far as it appears trustworthy. It is scanty, but it yields a decided outline.
This figure that thou here seest put, It was for gentle Shakespeare cut:
--so Jonson writes of the portrait in the Folio, and the same adjective "gentle" is used elsewhere of Shakespeare. It had not in Elizabethan English so confined a meaning as it has now; but it meant something, and I do not remember that their contemporaries called Marlowe or Jonson or Marston "gentle." Next, in the earliest extant reference that we have to Shakespeare, the writer says that he himself has seen his "demeanour" to be "civil."[3] It is not saying much; but it is not the first remark an acquaintance would probably have made about Ben Jonson or Samuel Johnson. The same witness adds about Shakespeare that "divers of worship have reported his uprightness of dealing which argues his honesty."
"Honesty" and "honest" in an Elizabethan pa.s.sage like this mean more than they would now; they answer rather to our "honourable" or "honour."
Lastly we have the witness borne by Jonson in the words: "I loved the man, and do honour his memory, on this side idolatry, as much as any. He was, indeed, honest, and of an open and free nature." With this notable phrase, to which I shall have to return, we come to an end of the testimony of eye-witnesses to Shakespeare the Man (for we have nothing to do with references to the mere actor or author). It is scanty, and insufficient to discriminate him from other persons who were gentle, civil, upright in their dealings, honourable, open, and free: but I submit that there have been not a few writers to whom all these qualities could not be truly ascribed, and that the testimony therefore does tell us something definite. To which must be added that we have absolutely no evidence which conflicts with it. Whatever Greene in his jealous embitterment might have said would carry little weight, but in fact, apart from general abuse of actors, he only says that the upstart had an over-weening opinion of his own capacities.
There remain certain traditions and certain facts; and without discussing them I will mention what seems to me to have a more or less probable significance. Stratford stories of drinking bouts may go for nothing, but not the consensus of tradition to the effect that Shakespeare was a pleasant and convivial person, "very good company, and of a very ready and pleasant smooth wit."[4] That after his retirement to Stratford he spent at the rate of 1000 a year is incredible, but that he spent freely seems likely enough. The tradition that as a young man he got into trouble with Sir Thomas Lucy for deer-stealing (which would probably be an escapade rather than an essay in serious poaching) is supported by his unsavoury jest about the "luces" in Sir Robert Shallow"s coat. The more general statement that in youth he was wild does not sound improbable; and, obscure as the matter is, I cannot regard as comfortable the little we know of the circ.u.mstances of his very early marriage. A contemporary story of an amorous adventure in London may well be pure invention, but we have no reason to reject it peremptorily as we should any similar gossip about Milton. Lastly, certain inferences may safely be drawn from the facts that, once securely started in London, Shakespeare soon began to prosper, and acquired, for an actor and playwright, considerable wealth; that he bought property in his native town, and was consulted sometimes by fellow-townsmen on matters of business; that he enforced the payment of certain debts; and that he took the trouble to get a coat of arms. But what cannot with any logic or any safety be inferred is that he, any more than Scott, was impelled to write simply and solely by the desire to make money and improve his social position; and the comparative abundance of business records will mislead only those who are thoughtless enough to forget that, if they buy a house or sue a debtor, the fact will be handed down, while their kind or generous deeds may be recorded, if at all, only in the statement that they were "of an open and free nature."
That Shakespeare was a good and perhaps keen man of business, or that he set store by a coat of arms, we could not have inferred from his writings. But we could have judged from them that he worked hard, and have guessed with some probability that he would rather have been a "gentleman" than an actor. And most of the other characteristics that appear from the external evidence would, I think, have seemed probable from a study of the works. This should encourage us to hope that we may be right in other impressions which we receive from them. And we may begin with one on which the external evidence has a certain bearing.
Readers of Shakespeare, I believe, imagine him to have been not only sweet-tempered but modest and una.s.suming. I do not doubt that they are right; and, vague as the Folio portrait and the Stratford bust are, it would be difficult to believe that their subject was an irritable, boastful, or pushing person. But if we confine ourselves to the works, it is not easy to give reasons for the idea that their author was modest and una.s.suming; and a man is not necessarily so because he is open, free, and very good company. Perhaps we feel that a man who was not so would have allowed much more of himself to appear in his works than Shakespeare does. Perhaps again we think that anything like presumption or self-importance was incompatible with Shakespeare"s sense of the ridiculous, his sublime common-sense, and his feeling of man"s insignificance. And, lastly, it seems to us clear that the playwright admires and likes people who are modest, una.s.suming, and plain; while it may perhaps safely be said that those who lack these qualities rarely admire them in others and not seldom despise them. But, however we may justify our impression that Shakespeare possessed them, we certainly receive it; and a.s.suming it to be as correct as the similar impression left by the Waverley Novels indubitably is, I go on to observe that the possession of them does not of necessity imply a want of spirit, or of proper self-a.s.sertion or insistence on rights.[5] It did not in Scott, and we have ground for saying that it did not in Shakespeare. If it had, he could not, being of an open and free nature, have prospered as he prospered. He took offence at Greene"s attack on him, and showed that he took it. He was "gentle," but he liked his debts to be paid. However his att.i.tude as to the enclosure at Welcombe may be construed, it is clear that he had to be reckoned with. It appears probable that he held himself wronged by Sir Thomas Lucy, and, pocketing up the injury because he could not resent it, gave him t.i.t for tat after some fifteen years.
The man in the Sonnets forgives his friend easily, but it is not from humility; and towards the world he is very far from humble. Of the dedication of _The Rape of Lucrece_ we cannot judge, for we do not know Shakespeare"s relations with Lord Southampton at that date; but, as for the dedication of _Venus and Adonis_, could modesty and dignity be better mingled in a letter from a young poet to a great n.o.ble than they are there?
Some of Shakespeare"s writings point to a strain of deep reflection and of quasi-metaphysical imagination in his nature; and a few of them seem to reveal a melancholy, at times merely sad, at times embittered or profound, if never hopeless. It is on this side mainly that we feel a decided difference between him and Fielding, and even between him and Scott. Yet nothing in the contemporary allusions or in the traditions would suggest that he was notably thoughtful or serious, and much less that he was melancholy. And although we could lay no stress on this fact if it stood alone, it is probably significant. Shakespeare"s writings, on the whole, leave a strong impression that his native disposition was much more gay than grave. They seem always to have made this impression.
Fuller tells us that "though his genius generally was jocular and inclining him to festivity, yet he could, when so disposed, be solemn and serious, as appears by his tragedies."[6] Johnson agreed with Rymer that his "natural disposition" led him to comedy; and, although Johnson after his manner distorts a true idea by wilful exaggeration and by perverting distinctions into ant.i.theses, there is truth in his development of Rymer"s remark. It would be easy to quote nineteenth century critics to the same effect; and the study of Shakespeare"s early works leads to a similar result. It has been truly said that we feel ourselves in much closer contact with his personality in the early comedies and in _Romeo and Juliet_ than in _Henry VI._ and _Richard III._ and _t.i.tus Andronicus_. In the latter, so far as we suppose them to be his own, he seems on the whole to be following, and then improving on, an existing style, and to be dealing with subjects which engage him as a playwright without much appealing to him personally. With _Romeo and Juliet_, on the other hand, and with _Richard II._ (which seems clearly to be his first attempt to write historical tragedy in a manner entirely his own), it is different, and we feel the presence of the whole man. The stories are tragic, but it is not precisely the _tragic_ aspect of them that attracts him most; and even Johnson"s statement, grotesquely false of the later tragedies, that "in tragedy he is always struggling after some occasion to be comic," is no more than an exaggeration in respect to _Romeo and Juliet_.[7] From these tragedies, as from _Love"s Labour"s Lost_ and the other early comedies, we should guess that the author was a young man, happy, alert, light-hearted, full of romance and poetry, but full also of fun; blessed with a keen enjoyment of absurdities, but, for all his intellectual subtlety and power, not markedly reflective, and certainly not particularly grave or much inclined to dejection. One might even suspect, I venture to think, that with such a flow of spirits and such exceeding alacrity of mind he might at present be a trifle wanting in feeling and disposed to levity.
In any case, if our general impression is correct, we shall not find it hard to believe that the author of these plays and the creator of Falstaff was "very good company" and a convivial good-fellow; and it might easily happen that he was tempted at times to "go here and there"
in society, and "make himself a motley to the view" in a fashion that left some qualms behind.[8]
There is a tradition that Shakespeare was "a handsome well-shaped man."
If the Stratford monument does not lie, he was not in later life a meagre man. And if our notion of his temperament has any truth, he can hardly have been physically feeble, bloodless, or inactive. Most readers probably imagine him the reverse. Even sceptical critics tell us that he was fond of field-sports; and of his familiar knowledge of them there can be no question. Yet--I can but record the impression without trying to justify it--his writings do not at all suggest to me that he was a splendidly powerful creature like Fielding, or that he greatly enjoyed bodily exertion, or was not easily tired. He says much of horses, but he does not make one think, as Scott does, that a gallop was a great delight to him. Nor again do I feel after reading him that he had a strong natural love of adventurous deeds, or longed to be an explorer or a soldier. The island of his boyish dreams--if he heard much of voyages as a boy--was, I fancy, the haunt of marmosets and hedgehogs, quaint moon-calves and flitting sprites, lovely colours, sounds and sweet airs that give delight and hurt not, less like Treasure Island than the Coral Island of Ballantyne in the original ill.u.s.trations, and more full of wonders than of dangers. He would have liked the Arabian Nights better than Dumas. Of course he admired men of action, understood them, and could express their feelings; but we do not feel particularly close to his personality as we read the warrior speeches of Hotspur, Henry, Oth.e.l.lo, Coriola.n.u.s, as we do when we read of Romeo or Hamlet, or when we feel the attraction of Henry"s modesty. In the same way, I suppose n.o.body feels Shakespeare"s personal presence in the ambition of Macbeth or the pride of Coriola.n.u.s; many feel it in Macbeth"s imaginative terrors, and in the disgust of Coriola.n.u.s at the idea of recounting his exploits in order to win votes. When we seem to hear Shakespeare"s voice--and we hear it from many mouths besides Romeo"s or Hamlet"s--it is the voice of a man with a happy, enjoying, but still contemplative and even dreamy nature, not of a man richly endowed with the impulses and feelings either of strenuous action or of self-a.s.sertion. If he had drawn a Satan, we should not have felt his personality, as we do Milton"s, in Satan"s pride and indomitable courage and intolerance of rule.
We know how often Shakespeare uses the ant.i.thesis of blood or pa.s.sion, and judgment or reason; how he praises the due commingling of the two, or the control of the first by the second; how frequently it is the want of such control that exposes his heroes to the attack of Fortune or Fate. What, then, were the pa.s.sions or the "affections of the blood"
most dangerous to himself? Not, if we have been right, those of pride or ambition; nor yet those of envy, hatred, or revenge; and still less that of avarice. But, in the first place, let us remember Jonson"s words, "he was honest and of an open and free nature," and let me repeat an observation, made elsewhere in pa.s.sing, that these words are true also of the great majority of Shakespeare"s heroes, and not least of his tragic heroes. Jonson almost quotes Iago:
The Moor is of a free and open nature, That thinks men honest that but seem to be so.
The king says that Hamlet,
being remiss, Most generous, and free from all contrivings, Will not peruse the foils.
The words "open and free" apply no less eminently to Brutus, Lear, and Timon. Antony and Coriola.n.u.s are men naturally frank, liberal, and large. Prospero lost his dukedom through his trustfulness. Romeo and Troilus and Orlando, and many slighter characters, are so far of the same type. Now such a free and open nature, obviously, is specially exposed to the risks of deception, perfidy, and ingrat.i.tude. If it is also a nature sensitive and intense, but not particularly active or (if the word may be excused) volitional, such experiences will tempt it to melancholy, embitterment, anger, possibly even misanthropy. If it _is_ thus active or volitional, it may become the prey of violent and destructive pa.s.sion, such as that of Oth.e.l.lo and of Coriola.n.u.s, and such as Lear"s would be if he were not so old. These affections, pa.s.sions, and sufferings of free and open natures are Shakespeare"s favourite tragic subject; and his favouritism, surely, goes so far as to const.i.tute a decided peculiarity, not found thus in other tragic poets.
Here he painted most, one cannot but think, what his own nature was most inclined to feel. But it would rather be melancholy, embitterment, an inactive rage or misanthropy, than any destructive pa.s.sion; and it would be a further question whether, and how far, he may at any time have experienced what he depicts. I am speaking here only of his disposition.[9]
That Shakespeare was as much inclined to be a lover as most poets we may perhaps safely a.s.sume; but can we conjecture anything further on this subject? I will confine myself to two points. He treats of love romantically, and tragically, and humorously. In the earlier plays especially the humorous aspect of the matter, the aspect so prominent in the _Midsummer-Night"s Dream_, the changefulness, brevity, irrationality, of the feeling, is at least as much dwelt on as the romantic, and with at least as much relish:
Lord! what fools these mortals be!
Now, if there is anything peculiar in the pictures here, it is, perhaps, the special interest that Shakespeare seems to take in what we may call the unreality of the feeling of love in an imaginative nature. Romeo as he first appears, and, in a later play, Orsino, are examples of this.
They are perfectly sincere, of course, but neither of them is really in love with a woman; each is in love with the state of being in love. This state is able to attach itself to a particular object, but it is not induced by the particular qualities of that object; it is more a dream than a pa.s.sion, and can melt away without carrying any of the lover"s heart with it; and in that sense it is unreal. This weakness, no doubt, is not confined to imaginative natures, but they may well be specially disposed to it (as Sh.e.l.ley was), and Shakespeare may have drawn it from his own experience. The suspicion is strengthened when we think of _Richard II_. In Richard this imaginative weakness is exhibited again, though not in relation to love. He luxuriates in images of his royal majesty, of the angels who guard his divine right, and of his own pathetic and almost sacred sufferings. The images are not insincere, and yet they are like dreams, for they refuse to touch earth and to connect themselves either with his past misdeeds or with the actions he ought now to perform. A strain of a similar weakness appears again in Hamlet, though only as one strain in a much more deep and complex nature. But this is not a common theme in poetry, much less in dramatic poetry.[10]
To come to our second question. When Shakespeare painted Cressida or described her through the mouth of Ulysses ("O these encounterers,"
etc.), or, again, when he portrayed the love of Antony for Cleopatra, was he using his personal experience? To answer that he _must_ have done so would be as ridiculous as to argue that Iago must be a portrait of himself; and the two plays contain nothing which, by itself, would justify us even in thinking that he probably did so. But we have the series of sonnets about the dark lady; and if we accept the sonnets to the friend as to some considerable extent based on fact and expressive of personal feelings, how can we refuse to take the others on the same footing? Even if the stories of the two series were not intertwined, we should have no ground for treating the two in different ways, unless we could say that external evidence, or the general impression we derive from Shakespeare"s works, forbids us to believe that he could ever have been entangled in an intrigue like that implied in the second series, or have felt and thought in the manner there portrayed. Being unable to say this, I am compelled, most regretfully, to hold it probable that this series is, in the main, based on personal experience. And I say "most regretfully," not merely because one would regret to think that Shakespeare was the victim of a Cressida or even the lover of a Cleopatra, but because the story implied in these sonnets is of quite another kind. They leave, on the whole, a very disagreeable impression.
We cannot compare it with the impressions produced, for example, by the "heathen" spirit of Goethe"s _Roman Elegies_, or by the pa.s.sion of Shakespeare"s Antony. In these two cases, widely dissimilar of course, we may speak of "immorality," but we are not discomfited, much less disgusted. The feeling and the att.i.tude are poetic, whole-hearted, and in one case pa.s.sionate in the extreme. But the state of mind expressed in the sonnets about the dark lady is half-hearted, often prosaic, and never worthy of the name of pa.s.sion. It is uneasy, dissatisfied, distempered, the state of mind of a man who despises his "pa.s.sion" and its object and himself, but, standing intellectually far above it, still has not resolution to end it, and only pains us by his gross and joyless jests. In _Troilus and Cressida_--not at all in the portrayal of Troilus"s love, but in the atmosphere of the drama--we seem to trace a similar mood of dissatisfaction, and of intellectual but practically impotent contempt.