Where it is desirable to make a continuous seam, a special machine is required, or an attachment for one of the other types. In this form of work the stock must be thoroughly cleaned and is then pa.s.sed between copper rollers which act in the same capacity as the copper dies.
_Other Applications._--Hardening and tempering can be done by clamping the work in the welding dies and setting the control and time to bring the metal to the proper color, when it is cooled in the usual manner.
Brazing is done by clamping the work in the jaws and heating until the flux, then the spelter has melted and run into the joint. Riveting and heading of rivets can be done by bringing the dies down on opposite ends of the rivet after it has been inserted in the hole, the dies being shaped to form the heads properly.
Hardened steel may be softened and annealed so that it can be machined by connecting the dies of the welder to each side of the point to be softened.
The current is then applied until the work has reached a point at which it will soften when cooled.
_Troubles and Remedies._--The following methods have been furnished by the Toledo Electric Welder Company and are recommended for this cla.s.s of work whenever necessary.
To locate grounds in the primary or high voltage side of the circuit, connect incandescent lamps in series by means of a long piece of lamp cord, as shown, in Figure 43a. For 110 volts use one lamp, for 220 volts use two lamps and for 440 volts use four lamps. Attach one end of the lamp cord to one side of the switch, and close the switch. Take the other end of the cord in the hand and press it against some part of the welder frame where the metal is clean and bright. Paint, grease and dirt act as insulators and prevent electrical contact. If the lamp lights, the circuit is in electrical contact with the frame; in other words, grounded. If the lamps do not light, connect the wire to a terminal block, die or slide. If the lamps then light, the circuit, coils or leads are in electrical contact with the large coil in the transformer or its connections.
If, however, the lamps do not light in either case, the lamp cord should be disconnected from the switch and connected to the other side, and the operations of connecting to welder frame, dies, terminal blocks, etc., as explained above, should be repeated. If the lamps light at any of these connections, a "ground" is indicated. "Grounds" can usually be found by carefully tracing the primary circuit until a place is found where the insulation is defective. Reinsulate and make the above tests again to make sure everything is clear. If the ground can not be located by observation, the various parts of the primary circuit should be disconnected, and the transformer, switch, regulator, etc., tested separately.
To locate a ground in the regulator or other part, disconnect the lines running to the welder from the switch. The test lamps used in the previous tests are connected, one end of lamp cord to the switch, the other end to a binding post of the regulator. Connect the other side of the switch to some part of the regulator housing. (This must be a clean connection to a bolt head or the paint should be sc.r.a.ped off.) Close the switch. If the lamps light, the regulator winding or some part of the switch is "grounded" to the iron base or core of the regulator. If the lamps do not light, this part of the apparatus is clear.
This test can be easily applied to any part of the welder outfit by connecting to the current carrying part of the apparatus, and to the iron base or frame that should not carry current. If the lamps light, it indicates that the insulation is broken down or is defective.
An A.C. voltmeter can, of course, be subst.i.tuted for the lamps, or a D.C.
voltmeter with D.C. current can be used in making the tests.
A short circuit in the primary is caused by the insulation of the coils becoming defective and allowing the bare copper wires to touch each other.
This may result in a "burn out" of one or more of the transformer coils, if the trouble is in the transformer, or in the continued blowing of fuses in the line. Feel of each coil separately. If a short circuit exists in a coil it will heat excessively. Examine all the wires; the insulation may have worn through and two of them may cross, or be in contact with the frame or other part of the welder. A short circuit in the regulator winding is indicated by failure of the apparatus to regulate properly, and sometimes, though not always, by the heating of the regulator coils.
The remedy for a short circuit is to reinsulate the defective parts. It is a good plan to prevent trouble by examining the wiring occasionally and see that the insulation is perfect.
_To Locate Grounds and Short Circuits in the Secondary, or Low Voltage Side._--Trouble of this kind is indicated by the machine acting sluggish or, perhaps, refusing to operate. To make a test, it will be necessary to first ascertain the exciting current of your particular transformer. This is the current the transformer draws on "open circuit," or when supplied with current from the line with no stock in the welder dies. The following table will give this information close enough for all practical purposes:
K.W. ----------------- Amperes at ---------------- Rating 110 Volts 220 Volts 440 Volts 550 Volts 3 1.5 .75 .38 .3 5 2.5 1.25 .63 .5 8 3.6 1.8 .9 .72 10 4.25 2.13 1.07 .85 15 6. 3. 1.5 1.2 20 7. 3.5 1.75 1.4 30 9. 4.5 2.25 1.8 35 9.6 4.8 2.4 1.92 50 10. 5. 2.5 2
Remove the fuses from the wall switch and subst.i.tute fuses just large enough to carry the "exciting" current. If no suitable fuses are at hand, fine strands of copper from an ordinary lamp cord may be used. These strands are usually No. 30 gauge wire and will fuse at about 10 amperes.
One or more strands should be used, depending on the amount of exciting current, and are connected across the fuse clips in place of fuse wire.
Place a piece of wood or fibre between the welding dies in the welder as though you were going to weld them. See that the regulator is on the highest point and close the welder switch. If the secondary circuit is badly grounded, current will flow through the ground, and the small fuses or small strands of wire will burn out. This is an indication that both sides of the secondary circuit are grounded or that a short circuit exists in a primary coil. In either case the welder should not be operated until the trouble is found and removed. If, however, the small fuses do not "blow," remove same and replace the large fuses, then disconnect wires running from the wall switch to the welder and subst.i.tute two pieces of No. 8 or No. 6 insulated copper wire, after sc.r.a.ping off the insulation for an inch or two at each end. Connect one wire from the switch to the frame of welder; this will leave one loose end. Hold this a foot or so away from the place where the insulation is cut off; then turn on the current and strike the free end of this wire lightly against one of the copper dies, drawing it away quickly. If no sparking is produced, the secondary circuit is free from ground, and you will then look for a broken connection in the circuit. Some caution must be used in making the above test, as in case one terminal is heavily grounded the testing wire may be fused if allowed to stay in contact with the die.
_The Remedy._--Clean the slides, dies and terminal blocks thoroughly and dry out the fibre insulation if it is damp. See that no scale or metal has worked under the sliding parts, and that the secondary leads do not touch the frame. If the ground is very heavy it may be necessary to remove the slides in order to facilitate the examination and removal of the ground. Insulation, where torn or worn through, must be carefully replaced or taped. If the transformer coils are grounded to the iron core of the transformer or to the secondary, it may be necessary to remove the coils and reinsulate them at the points of contact. A short circuited coil will heat excessively and eventually burn out. This may mean a new coil if you are unable to repair the old one. In all cases the transformer windings should be protected from mechanical injury or dampness. Unless excessively overloaded, transformers will last for years without giving a moment"s trouble, if they are not exposed to moisture or are not injured mechanically.
The most common trouble arises from poor electrical contacts, and they are the cause of endless trouble and annoyance. See that all connections are clean and bright. Take out the dies every day or two and see that there is no scale, grease or dirt between them and the holders. Clean them thoroughly before replacing. Tighten the bolts running from the transformer leads to the work jaws.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
This method bears no relation to the one just considered, except that the source of heat is the same in both cases. Arc welding makes use of the flame produced by the voltaic arc in practically the same way that oxy-acetylene welding uses the flame from the gases.
If the ends of two pieces of carbon through which a current of electricity is flowing while they are in contact are separated from each other quite slowly, a brilliant arc of flame is formed between them which consists mainly of carbon vapor. The carbons are consumed by combination with the oxygen in the air and through being turned to a gas under the intense heat.
The most intense action takes place at the center of the carbon which carries the positive current and this is the point of greatest heat. The temperature at this point in the arc is greater than can be produced by any other means under human control.
An arc may be formed between pieces of metal, called electrodes, in the same way as between carbon. The metallic arc is called a flaming arc and as the metal of the electrode burns with the heat, it gives the flame a color characteristic of the material being used. The metallic arc may be drawn out to a much greater length than one formed between carbon electrodes.
Arc Welding is carried out by drawing a piece of carbon which is of negative polarity away from the pieces of metal to be welded while the metal is made positive in polarity. The negative wire is fastened to the carbon electrode and the work is laid on a table made of cast or wrought iron to which the positive wire is made fast. The direction of the flame is then from the metal being welded to the carbon and the work is thus prevented from being saturated with carbon, which would prove very detrimental to its strength. A secondary advantage is found in the fact that the greatest heat is at the metal being welded because of its being the positive electrode.
The carbon electrode is usually made from one quarter to one and a half inches in diameter and from six to twelve inches in length. The length of the arc may be anywhere from one inch to four inches, depending on the size of the work being handled.
While the parts are carefully insulated to avoid danger of shock, it is necessary for the operator to wear rubber gloves as a further protection, and to wear some form of hood over the head to shield him against the extreme heat liberated. This hood may be made from metal, although some material that does not conduct electricity is to be preferred. The work is watched through pieces of gla.s.s formed with one sheet, which is either blue or green, placed over another which is red. Screens of gla.s.s are sometimes used without the head protector. Some protection for the eyes is absolutely necessary because of the intense white light.
It is seldom necessary to preheat the work as with the gas processes, because the heat is localized at the point of welding and the action is so rapid that the expansion is not so great. The necessity of preheating, however, depends entirely on the material, form and size of the work being handled. The same advice applies to arc welding as to the gas flame method but in a lesser degree. Filling rods are used in the same way as with any other flame process.
It is the purpose of this explanation to state the fundamental principles of the application of the electric arc to welding metals, and by applying the principles the following questions will be answered:
What metals can be welded by the electric arc?
What difficulties are to be encountered in applying the electric arc to welding?
What is the strength of the weld in comparison with the original piece?
What is the function of the arc welding machine itself?
What is the comparative application of the electric arc and the oxy-acetylene method and others of a similar nature?
The answers to these questions will make it possible to understand the application of this process to any work. In a great many places the use of the arc is cutting the cost of welding to a very small fraction of what it would be by any other method, so that the importance of this method may be well understood.
Any two metals which are brought to the melting temperature and applied to each other will adhere so that they are no more apt to break at the weld than at any other point outside of the weld. It is the property of all metals to stick together under these conditions. The electric arc is used in this connection merely as a heating agent. This is its only function in the process.
It has advantages in its ease of application and the cheapness with which heat can be liberated at any given point by its use. There is nothing in connection with arc welding that the above principles will not answer; that is, that metals at the melting point will weld and that the electric arc will furnish the heat to bring them to this point. As to the first question, what metals can be welded, all metals can be welded.
The difficulties which are encountered are as follows:
In the case of bra.s.s or zinc, the metals will be covered with a coat of zinc oxide before they reach a welding heat. This zinc oxide makes it impossible for two clean surfaces to come together and some method has to be used for eliminating this possibility and allowing the two surfaces to join without the possibility of the oxide intervening. The same is true of aluminum, in which the oxide, alumina, will be formed, and with several other alloys comprising elements of different melting points.
In order to eliminate these oxides, it is necessary in practical work, to puddle the weld; this is, to have a sufficient quant.i.ty of molten metal at the weld so that the oxide is floated away. When this is done, the two surfaces which are to be joined are covered with a coat of melted metal on which floats the oxide and other impurities. The two pieces are thus allowed to join while their surfaces are protected. This precaution is not necessary in working with steel except in extreme cases.
Another difficulty which is met with in the welding of a great many metals is their expansion under heat, which results in so great a contraction when the weld cools that the metal is left with a considerable strain on it. In extreme cases this will result in cracking at the weld or near it. To eliminate this danger it is necessary to apply heat either all over the piece to be welded or at certain points. In the case of cast iron and sometimes with copper it is necessary to anneal after welding, since otherwise the welded pieces will be very brittle on account of the chilling. This is also true of malleable iron.
Very thin metals which are welded together and are not backed up by something to carry away the excess heat, are very apt to burn through, leaving a hole where the weld should be. This difficulty can be eliminated by backing up the weld with a metal face or by decreasing the intensity of the arc so that this melting through will not occur. However, the practical limit for arc welding without backing up the work with a metal face or decreasing the intensity of the arc is approximately 22 gauge, although thinner metal can be welded by a very skillful and careful operator.
One difficulty with arc welding is the lack of skillful operators. This method is often looked upon as being something out of the ordinary and governed by laws entirely different from other welding. As a matter of fact, it does not take as much skill to make a good arc weld as it does to make a good weld in a forge fire as the blacksmith does it. There are few jobs which cannot be handled successfully by an operator of average intelligence with one week"s instructions, although his work will become better and better in quality as he continues to use the arc.
Now comes the question of the strength of the weld after it has been made.
This strength is equally as great as that of the metal that is used to make the weld. It should be remembered, however, that the metal which goes into the weld is put in there as a casting and has not been rolled. This would make the strength of the weld as great as the same metal that is used for filling if in the cast form.
Two pieces of steel could be welded together having a tensile strength at the weld of 50,000 pounds. Higher strengths than this can be obtained by the use of special alloys for the filling material or by rolling. Welds with a tensile strength as great as mentioned will give a result which is perfectly satisfactory in almost all cases.
There are a great many jobs where it is possible to fill up the weld, that is, make the section at the point of the weld a little larger than the section through the rest of the piece. By doing this, the disadvantages of the weld being in the form of a casting in comparison with the rest of the piece being in the form of rolled steel can be overcome, and make the weld itself even stronger than the original piece.
The next question is the adaptability of the electric arc in comparison with forge fire, oxy-acetylene or other method. The answer is somewhat difficult if made general. There are no doubt some cases where the use of a drop hammer and forge fire or the use of the oxy-acetylene torch will make, all things being considered, a better job than the use of the electric arc, although a case where this is absolutely proved is rare.
The electric arc will melt metal in a weld for less than the same metal can be melted by the use of the oxy-acetylene torch, and, on account of the fact that the heat can be applied exactly where it is required and in the amount required, the arc can in almost all cases supply welding heat for less cost than a forge fire or heating furnace.
The one great advantage of the oxy-acetylene method in comparison with other methods of welding is the fact that in some cases of very thin sheet, the weld can be made somewhat sooner than is possible otherwise. With metal of 18 gauge or thicker, this advantage is eliminated. In cutting steel, the oxy-acetylene torch is superior to almost any other possible method.