Probably the simplest of all ovens for small tools is made by placing a piece of ordinary gas pipe in the fire (Figure 4), and heating until the inside of the pipe is bright red. Parts placed in this pipe, after one end has been closed, may be brought to the desired heat without danger of cooling draughts or chemical change from the action of the fire. More elaborate ovens may be bought which use gas, fuel oils or coal to produce the heat and in which the work may be placed on trays so that the fire will not strike directly on the steel being treated.
If the work is not very important, it may be withdrawn from the fire or oven, after heating to the desired point, and allowed to cool in the air until all traces of red have disappeared when held in a dark place. The work should be held where it is reasonably free from cold air currents. If, upon touching a pine stick to the piece being annealed, the wood does not smoke, the work may then be cooled in water.
Better annealing is secured and harder metal may be annealed if the cooling is extended over a number of hours by placing the work in a bed of non-heat-conducting material, such as ashes, charred bone, asbestos fibre, lime, sand or fire clay. It should be well covered with the heat retaining material and allowed to remain until cool. Cooling may be accomplished by allowing the fire in an oven or furnace to die down and go out, leaving the work inside the oven with all openings closed. The greater the time taken for gradual cooling from the red heat, the more perfect will be the results of the annealing.
While steel is annealed by slow cooling, copper or bra.s.s is annealed by bringing to a low red heat and quickly plunging into cold water.
_Hardening._--Steel is hardened by bringing to a proper temperature, slowly and evenly as for annealing, and then cooling more or less quickly, according to the grade of steel being handled. The degree of hardening is determined by the kind of steel, the temperature from which the metal is cooled and the temperature and nature of the bath into which it is plunged for cooling.
Steel to be hardened is often heated in the fire until at some heat around 600 to 700 degrees is reached, then placed in a heating bath of molten lead, heated mercury, fused cyanate of pota.s.sium, etc., the heating bath itself being kept at the proper temperature by fires acting on it. While these baths have the advantage of heating the metal evenly and to exactly the temperature desired throughout without any part becoming over or under heated, their disadvantages consist of the fact that their materials and the fumes are poisonous in most all cases, and if not poisonous, are extremely disagreeable.
The degree of heat that a piece of steel must be brought to in order that it may be hardened depends on the percentage of carbon in the steel. The greater the percentage of carbon, the lower the heat necessary to harden.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 5.--Cooling the Test Bar for Hardening]
To find the proper heat from which any steel must be cooled, a simple test may be carried out provided a sample of the steel, about six inches long can be secured. One end of this test bar should be heated almost to its melting point, and held at this heat until the other end just turns red.
Now cool the piece in water by plunging it so that both ends enter at the same time (Figure 5), that is, hold it parallel with the surface of the water when plunged in. This serves the purpose of cooling each point along the bar from a different heat. When it has cooled in the water remove the piece and break it at short intervals, about 1/2 inch, along its length.
The point along the test bar which was cooled from the best possible temperature will show a very fine smooth grain and the piece cannot be cut by a file at this point. It will be necessary to remember the exact color of that point when taken from the fire, making another test if necessary, and heat all pieces of this same steel to this heat. It will be necessary to have the cooling bath always at the same temperature, or the results cannot be alike.
While steel to be hardened is usually cooled in water, many other liquids may be used. If cooled in strong brine, the heat will be extracted much quicker, and the degree of hardness will be greater. A still greater degree of hardness is secured by cooling in a bath of mercury. Care should be used with the mercury bath, as the fumes that arise are poisonous.
Should toughness be desired, without extreme hardness, the steel may be cooled in a bath of lard oil, neatsfoot oil or fish oil. To secure a result between water and oil, it is customary to place a thick layer of oil on top of water. In cooling, the piece will pa.s.s through the oil first, thus avoiding the sudden shock of the cold water, yet producing a degree of hardness almost as great as if the oil were not used.
It will, of course, be necessary to make a separate test for each cooling medium used. If the fracture of the test piece shows a coa.r.s.e grain, the steel was too hot at that point; if the fracture can be cut with a file, the metal was not hot enough at that point.
When hardening carbon tool steel its heat should be brought to a cherry red, the exact degree of heat depending on the amount of carbon and the test made, then plunged into water and held there until all hissing sound and vibration ceases. Brine may be used for this purpose; it is even better than plain water. As soon as the hissing stops, remove the work from the water or brine and plunge in oil for complete cooling.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 6.--Cooling the Tool for Tempering]
In hardening high-speed tool steel, or air hardening steels, the tool should be handled as for carbon steel, except that after the body reaches a cherry red, the cutting point must be quickly brought to a white heat, almost melting, so that it seems ready for welding. Then cool in an oil bath or in a current of cool air.
Hardening of copper, bra.s.s and bronze is accomplished by hammering or working them while cold.
_Tempering_ is the process of making steel tough after it has been hardened, so that it will hold a cutting edge and resist cracking.
Tempering makes the grain finer and the metal stronger. It does not affect the hardness, but increases the elastic limit and reduces the brittleness of the steel. In that tempering is usually performed immediately after hardening, it might be considered as a continuation of the former process.
The work or tool to be tempered is slowly heated to a cherry red and the cutting end is then dipped into water to a depth of 1/2 to 3/4 inch above the point (Figure 6). As soon as the point cools, still leaving the tool red above the part in water, remove the work from the bath and quickly rub the end with a fine emery cloth.
As the heat from the uncooled part gradually heats the point again, the color of the polished portion changes rapidly. When a certain color is reached, the tool should be completely immersed in the water until cold.
For lathe, planer, shaper and slotter tools, this color should be a light straw.
Reamers and taps should be cooled from an ordinary straw color.
Drills, punches and wood working tools should have a brown color.
Blue or light purple is right for cold chisels and screwdrivers.
Dark blue should be reached for springs and wood saws.
Darker colors than this, ranging through green and gray, denote that the piece has reached its ordinary temper, that is, it is partially annealed.
After properly hardening a spring by dipping in lard or fish oil, it should be held over a fire while still wet with the oil. The oil takes fire and burns off, properly tempering the spring.
Remember that self-hardening steels must never be dipped in water, and always remember for all work requiring degrees of heat, that the more carbon, the less heat.
_Case Hardening._--This is a process for adding more carbon to the surface of a piece of steel, so that it will have good wear-resisting qualities, while being tough and strong on the inside. It has the effect of forming a very hard and durable skin on the surface of soft steel, leaving the inside unaffected.
The simplest way, although not the most efficient, is to heat the piece to be case hardened to a red heat and then sprinkle or rub the part of the surface to be hardened with pota.s.sium ferrocyanide. This material is a deadly poison and should be handled with care. Allow the cyanide to fuse on the surface of the metal and then plunge into water, brine or mercury.
Repeating the process makes the surface harder and the hard skin deeper each time.
Another method consists of placing the piece to be hardened in a bed of powdered bone (bone which has been burned and then powdered) and cover with more powdered bone, holding the whole in an iron tray. Now heat the tray and bone with the work in an oven to a bright red heat for 30 minutes to an hour and then plunge the work into water or brine.
CHAPTER II
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING MATERIALS
_Welding._--Oxy-acetylene welding is an autogenous welding process, in which two parts of the same or different metals are joined by causing the edges to melt and unite while molten without the aid of hammering or compression. When cool, the parts form one piece of metal.
The oxy-acetylene flame is made by mixing oxygen and acetylene gases in a special welding torch or blowpipe, producing, when burned, a heat of 6,300 degrees, which is more than twice the melting temperature of the common metals. This flame, while being of intense heat, is of very small size.
_Cutting._--The process of cutting metals with the flame produced from oxygen and acetylene depends on the fact that a jet of oxygen directed upon hot metal causes the metal itself to burn away with great rapidity, resulting in a narrow slot through the section cut. The action is so fast that metal is not injured on either side of the cut.
_Carbon Removal._--This process depends on the fact that carbon will burn and almost completely vanish if the action is a.s.sisted with a supply of pure oxygen gas. After the combustion is started with any convenient flame, it continues as long as carbon remains in the path of the jet of oxygen.
_Materials._--For the performance of the above operations we require the two gases, oxygen and acetylene, to produce the flames; rods of metal which may be added to the joints while molten in order to give the weld sufficient strength and proper form, and various chemical powders, called fluxes, which a.s.sist in the flow of metal and in doing away with many of the impurities and other objectionable features.
_Instruments._--To control the combustion of the gases and add to the convenience of the operator a number of accessories are required.
The pressure of the gases in their usual containers is much too high for their proper use in the torch and we therefore need suitable valves which allow the gas to escape from the containers when wanted, and other specially designed valves which reduce the pressure. Hose, composed of rubber and fabric, together with suitable connections, is used to carry the gas to the torch.
The torches for welding and cutting form a cla.s.s of highly developed instruments of the greatest accuracy in manufacture, and must be thoroughly understood by the welder. Tables, stands and special supports are provided for holding the work while being welded, and in order to handle the various metals and allow for their peculiarities while heated use is made of ovens and torches for preheating. The operator requires the protection of goggles, masks, gloves and appliances which prevent undue radiation of the heat.
_Torch Practice._--The actual work of welding and cutting requires preliminary preparation in the form of heat treatment for the metals, including preheating, annealing and tempering. The surfaces to be joined must be properly prepared for the flame, and the operation of the torches for best results requires careful and correct regulation of the gases and the flame produced.
Finally, the different metals that are to be welded require special treatment for each one, depending on the physical and chemical characteristics of the material.
It will thus be seen that the apparently simple operations of welding and cutting require special materials, instruments and preparation on the part of the operator and it is a proved fact that failures, which have been attributed to the method, are really due to lack of these necessary qualifications.
OXYGEN
Oxygen, the gas which supports the rapid combustion of the acetylene in the torch flame, is one of the elements of the air. It is the cause and the active agent of all combustion that takes place in the atmosphere. Oxygen was first discovered as a separate gas in 1774, when it was produced by heating red oxide of mercury and was given its present name by the famous chemist, Lavoisier.