Readers of Suckling will recognize the inspiration of the following lines:
Why so nice and coy, fair Lady, Prithee why so coy?
If you deny your hand and lip Can I your heart enjoy?
Prithee why so coy?
(IV. iii.)
There is one obvious omission from the above list of plays founded on pastoral romances, but it has been made intentionally. The interest which from our present point of view attaches to _As You Like It_ lies less in the relation of that play to its source in Lodge"s romance than to the fact that in it Shakespeare summed up to a great extent, and by implication pa.s.sed judgement upon, pastoral tradition as a whole. It will therefore be more convenient and more appropriate to postpone consideration of the piece until we have followed out the influence of that tradition, and watched its effect in the wide field of the romantic drama, and come at the end ourselves to face the question of the meaning and the merits of pastoralism as a literary creed.
Looking back for a moment over the plays just pa.s.sed in review, it is impossible not to be struck by the fact that they present in themselves but the slightest traces of pastoral. It is evident that it was not there that lay the dramatists" interest in the romances. This observation is important, for the tendency is not confined to those plays which are directly founded on works of the sort. The idea of pastoral current among the playwrights, and no doubt among the audience too, was largely derived from novels such as the _Arcadia_, and, as we have seen, the tradition of these works was one rather of polite chivalry and courtly adventure than of pastoralism proper. Had no other forces been at work the tradition of the stage influenced by the romances would have probably shown no trace of pastoral at all. As it was, something of a genuinely pastoral tradition arose out of the mythological plays and the attempts at imitating the Italian drama, and this combined with the more popular but less genuine pastoralism of the romances to produce the peculiar hybrid which we commonly find pa.s.sing under the name of pastoral in this country.
II
The pastoral tradition, such as it was, that thus formed itself on the English stage remained to the end hesitating, tentative, and undefined. At no time did it become an enveloping atmosphere of artistic creation.
Authors approached it as it were from the outside, from no sense of inner compulsion, but experimentally from the broader standpoint of the romantic drama, and with the air of pioneers and innovators, as if ignorant of what had been already achieved in the same line by their predecessors.
Consequently, in spite of the considerable following it enjoyed, this romantic-pastoral tradition lacked vitality, and failed as a rule to attract authors of more pre-eminent powers. We have already seen how the three chief English experiments stand apart from it, and we shall find as we proceed that there are other plays as well which it is difficult to bring strictly into line, though they are not in themselves of sufficient importance to claim separate consideration. In some measure, indeed, it may be truly said that, like the history of the Senecan drama or of cla.s.sical versification, the history of the dramatic pastoral in England is that of a long series of incoherent and more or less fruitless experiments. There is, however, an important difference between the two cases, for in the pastoral we are at least aware of a striving towards some new and but dimly apprehended form of artistic expression. It is true that this was never attained; and looking back from the vantage-ground of time we may doubt whether after all it was worth attaining, but it serves to differentiate the pastoral experiment from those others whose object was but the revival of a past for ever vanished. The English pastoral drama had one advantage at least over many other literary fopperies, in that it obeyed the fundamental law of literary progress, which is one with artistic evolution.
A chronological survey of the regular plays to be cla.s.sed as pastorals will best serve the needs of our present inquiry, and for this purpose it is fortunate that in nearly all cases we possess evidence which enables us to date the work with tolerable accuracy, while the few which yet remain doubtful are themselves unimportant, and probably fall near the limit of our period. Even, however, were this not so, the singular independence of most of the pieces and the absence of any visible line of development would make uncertainty as to their order of far less consequence here than in many departments of literary history in which similar evidence is unhappily wanting.
In substance, then, the romantic pastoral in England was a combination of the Arcadian drama of Italy with the chivalric romance of Spain, as familiarized through the medium of Sidney"s work, and also, though less consistently, with the never very fully developed tradition of the mythological play. In form, again, it may be said to represent the mingling of the conventions of the Italian drama with the freer action and more direct and dramatic presentation of the romantic stage. The earliest play in which these characteristics are found is the anonymous _Maid"s Metamorphosis_, printed and probably acted "by the Children of Powles" in 1600.[315] The plot, which from the blending of different elements it presents is of considerable historical interest, is briefly as follows.
Eurymine, of whose connexions we hear nothing but that she is supposed to be lowly born, and Ascanio, the duke"s son, are in love. The duke, discovering this, orders two of his retainers to lead Eurymine secretly into the forest and there slay her. Her youth and beauty, however, touch their hearts, and they agree to spare her on condition that she shall live among the country folk, and never return to court. They have no sooner left her than she meets with a shepherd and a hunter, who both fall in love on the spot, and whose rivalry supplies her with the means of livelihood. Ascanio now appears in search of his love, and is directed by Morpheus, at the hest of Juno, to seek out a certain hermit, who will be able to advise him. In the meantime, however, an unexpected complication has arisen. Apollo, meeting Eurymine in her shepherdess" disguise, has fallen violently in love, and threatens mischief. To escape from his pursuit she craves a boon, and having extorted a promise from the infatuated G.o.d, demands that he shall change her into a man. Much regretting his rash promise, Apollo complies. The next thing that happens is that the lovers meet. This is distinctly unsatisfactory, but at the suggestion of the hermit "three or four Muses" and the "Charities" or Graces are called in to help, and by their prayers at length induce Apollo to relent and restore Eurymine to her original s.e.x. No sooner is this performed than she is discovered to be the daughter of the hermit, and he the exiled prince of Lesbos. At this juncture arrives a messenger from the duke, begging Ascanio to return to court, and adding casually, as it seems, that should Eurymine happen to be still alive she too will be welcome.
Thus we see the threefold weft, Arcadian, courtly, and mythological, weaving the fantastic web of the earliest of the romantic pastorals. Of the influence of the drama of Ta.s.so and Guarini there is, indeed, but little, the plot being in no wise that of orthodox tradition; but shepherd and ranger are true Arcadians, neither disguised courtiers nor rustic clowns, as in the Sidneian romance. The author, whoever he was, may have drawn a hint for his plot from Lyly"s _Gallathea_, in which, it will be remembered, Venus promises to change one of the enamoured maidens into a man, or else, maybe, direct from the tale of Iphis in Ovid.[316] As to the sources of the other elements, it will be sufficient for our purpose to note that the verse portions of the play are rimed throughout in couplets, a fact that carries them back towards Peele"s _Arraignment_ and the days previous to Marlowe. The slight comic business is in prose, and the characters of the three young rogues are directly traceable to the waggish pages of Lyly.[317]
The piece has the appearance of being a youthful work; the verse is often irregular and clumsy, and the rimes uncertain. On the whole, however, it contains not a little that is graceful and pleasing to the ear, while in description the unknown author shows himself a faithful and not unsuccessful disciple of Spenser in his idyllic mood. Here, for instance, are two pa.s.sages which have been thought to reveal a study of the master:[318]
Within this ore-growne Forrest, there is found A duskie Cave, thrust lowe into the ground: So ugly darke, so dampie and so steepe, As for his life the sunne durst never peepe Into the entrance: which doth so afright The very day, that halfe the world is night.
Where fennish fogges, and vapours do abound: There Morpheus doth dwell within the ground, No crowing c.o.c.ke, nor waking bell doth call, Nor watchfull dogge disturbeth sleepe at all.
No sound is heard in compa.s.se of the hill, But every thing is quiet, whisht, and still.
Amid this Cave, upon the ground doth lie, A hollow plancher, all of Ebonie Cover"d with blacke, whereon the drowsie G.o.d, Drowned in sleepe, continually doth nod. (II. i. 112.)
And again:
Then in these verdant fields al richly dide, With natures gifts, and Floras painted pride: There is a goodly spring whose christal streames Beset with myrtles, keepe backe Phoebus beames: There in rich seates all wrought of Ivory, The Graces sit, listening the melodye: The warbling Birds doo from their prettie billes Unite in concord, as the brooke distilles, Whose gentle murmure with his buzzing noates Is as a base unto their hollow throates.
Garlands beside they weare upon their browes, Made of all sorts of flowers earth allowes: From whence such fragrant sweet perfumes arise, As you would sweare that place is Paradise. (V. i. 104.)
The same influence may perhaps be traced in slighter sketches, such as the
gra.s.sie bed With sommers gawdie dyaper bespred. (II. i. 55.)
Here is a pa.s.sage in another strain, which culminates in a touch of haunting melody that Spenser himself might have envied:
I marvell that a rusticke shepheard dare With woodmen thus audaciously compare?
Why, hunting is a pleasure for a King, And G.o.ds themselves sometime frequent the thing.
Diana with her bowe and arrowes keene, Did often use the Chace, in Forrests greene.
And so alas, the good Athenian knight, And swift Acteon herein tooke delight: And Atalanta the Arcadian dame, Conceiv"d such wondrous pleasure in the game, That with her traine of Nymphs attending on, She came to hunt the Bore of Calydon. (I. i. 318.)
We have also the introduction of an Echo scene--the earliest, I suppose, in English. A notable feature of the play, on the other hand, are the songs, which are in some cases of rare excellence, and certain of which bear a resemblance to those found in Lyly"s plays. In the lines sung by Eurymine--
Ye sacred Fyres, and powers above, Forge of desires working love, Cast downe your eye, cast downe your eye Upon a Mayde in miserie--(I. i. 131.)
there is a subtlety of sound rare even in the work of lyrists of acknowledged merit. Again, there is a fine swing in the song:
Round about, round about, in a fine Ring a: Thus we daunce, thus we daunce, and thus we sing a.
Trip and go, too and fro[319], over this Greene a: All about, in and out, for our brave Queene a. (II. ii. 105.)
The best of these songs, however, and indeed the gem of the whole play, is undoubtedly the duet of the shepherd and the ranger, as they call upon Eurymine, with its striking crescendo of antiphonal effect:
_Gemulo._ As little Lambes lift up their snowie sides, When mounting Larke salutes the gray-eyed morne--
_Silvio._ As from the Oaken leaves the honie glides, Where Nightingales record upon the thorne--
_Ge._ So rise my thoughts--
_Sil._ So all my sences cheere--
_Ge._ When she surveyes my flocks--
_Sil._ And she my Deare.
_Ge._ Eurymine!
_Sil._ Eurymine!
_Ge._ Come foorth!
_Sil._ Come foorth!
_Ge._ Come foorth and cheere these plaines!
_Both._ Eurymine, come foorth and cheere these plaines--
_Sil._ The Wood-mans Love--
_Ge._ And Lady of the Swaynes[320] (IV. ii. 39.)
Not long after the appearance of the _Maid"s Metamorphosis_ there was written a play ent.i.tled _The Fairy Pastoral, or the Forest of Elves_, which is preserved in a ma.n.u.script belonging to the Duke of Devonshire, and was printed as long ago as 1824 by Joseph Haslewood, for the Roxburghe Club. The author was William Percy, third son of Henry, eighth Earl of Northumberland, and the friend of Barnabe Barnes at Oxford, but of whose life, beyond the facts of its obscurity and seeming misery, little or nothing is known. He left several ma.n.u.script plays, of which the present at least, dated 1603[321] at "Wolves Hill, my Parna.s.sus," possesses neither interest nor merit. It is an amateurish performance, partly in prose, partly in verse, either blank or rimed in couplets. Where the author adopts verse as a vehicle, his language becomes crabbed and ungrammatical in its endeavour to accommodate itself to the unwonted restraint of metre, which it nevertheless fails to do. It is also apt to be laden to the point of obscurity with strange verbal mintage of the author"s own. The plot is not strictly pastoral at all, the only characters that supply anything traditional in this line being the fairy hunters and huntresses. Oberon, having heard that Hypsiphyle, the princess of Elvida or the Forest of Elves, neglects her charge and suffers the woods and quarry to decay, sends Orion to take over the government and reform the abuses. The princess refuses to resign her authority, and a hunting contest ensues, in which, though she is vanquished, she in her turn overcomes her victor, and finally shares with him the fairy throne.
While this plot is in action three careless huntresses play tricks on their enamoured hunters, and, being fooled in their turn, at last consent to reward the service of their lovers. The scenes are spun out by a thread of broad farce, supported by the fairy children, their schoolmaster, and his wench. Some of the obscenity of this part may be elaborated from pa.s.sages in the _Maid"s Metamorphosis_. The piece has a prologue for representation at court, but it is most unlikely that it ever had that honour. It is from beginning to end a graceless and mirthless composition.
Pa.s.sing over the _Faithful Shepherdess_ in 1609, we come to a play of a very different order from the last, namely, Phineas Fletcher"s _Sicelides_, a piscatorial, written for presentation before King James at Cambridge in 1614-5, though he left without seeing it. It was acted before the University at King"s College, on March 13, and printed, surrept.i.tiously it would appear, in 1631[322]. It is not easy to account for the neglect which has usually fallen to the lot of this play at the hands of critics[323]. No doubt among writers generally it has shared the neglect commonly bestowed on pastorals, while among those more particularly concerned with our present subject it has possibly been overlooked as being piscatory. The fisher-poem, however, as we have already seen, is merely a variant of the pastoral, and must be included under the same general heading, while the play itself has no less poetic merit, and is certainly far more entertaining than the piscatory eclogues of the same author. The scene, as the t.i.tle implies, is laid in Sicily, which was natural enough, or indeed inevitable, in the case of a writer who would himself in all confidence have pointed to Theocritus as the fountain-head of his inspiration.
Perindus loves Glaucilla, the daughter of Glaucus and Circe, and his affection is returned. In consequence, however, of an oracle he feigns indifference towards her, and though heart-sick when alone, meets her with mockery when she pleads her love. Meanwhile Perindus" sister, Olinda, is courted by Glaucilla"s brother, Thalander, to whose suit, however, she turns a deaf ear, and at last bids him leave the country. He does so, but soon returns in disguise, resolved on winning her. She in the meantime has relented of her coldness, and is pining for his love. An opportunity soon offers itself for his purpose. By mistake or through ignorance she plucks the Hesperian apples in the sacred grove, an offence for which she is condemned to be offered as a sacrifice to a monster who inhabits a cave on the sh.o.r.e, and is known by the name of Maleorchus. Andromeda-like, she is bound to a rock, and the orc is in the very act of rushing upon its prey, when Thalander interposes and succeeds in slaying the monster. Meanwhile Cosma--"a light nymph of Messina," who replaces the "wanton nymph of Corinth" of the Arcadian cast--has fallen in love with Perindus, and, determining to get rid at a stroke both of his sister Olinda and his mistress Glaucilla, gives the former a poison under pretence of a love-cure. Glaucilla hearing of this, and suspecting the supposed philtre, mingles with it an antidote, so that when Olinda drinks it she only falls into a death-like trance. Hereupon Cosma accuses Glaucilla of subst.i.tuting a poison for the philtre. She is condemned to be cast from the cliffs, but Perindus comes forward and claims to die in her place. He is actually cast from the rocks, but falling into the sea is rescued by two fishermen.
These, we may notice, are borrowed from the twenty-first idyl of Theocritus, and supply, together with Cosma"s page and lovers, a comic under-plot to the play. Olinda now revives, Thalander discovering her love for him reveals himself, and Perindus" oracle being fulfilled, all ends happily, the festivities being crowned by the entirely unexpected and uncalled-for return of Tyrinthus, the father of Perindus and Olinda, who had been carried off long before by pirates.
This somewhat complex plot, the dependence of which on the Italian pastoral is evident, is padded with a good deal of farce, but though the construction never evinces any great power on the part of the author, it is not on the whole inadequate. The verse is in great part rimed in couplets, and there are frequent attempts at epigrammatic effect, which at times lead to some obscurity. The language betrays, as in the case of the author"s eclogues, a pseudo-archaism, which points, particularly in such phrases as "doe ycleape," to a perhaps unfortunate study of Spenser.