From these observations it results that gneiss-granite predominates in the immense group of the mountains of the Parime, as mica-slate-gneiss prevails in the Cordillera of the coast; that in the two systems the granitic soil, unmixed with gneiss and mica-slate, occupies but a very small extent of country; and that in the coast-chain the formations of clayey slate (thonschiefer), mica-slate, gneiss and granite succeed each other in such a manner on the same line from east to west (presenting a very uniform and regular inclination of their strata towards the north-west), that, according to the hypothesis of a subterraneous prolongation of the strata, the granite of Las Trincheras and the Rincon del Diablo may be superposed on the gneiss of the Villa de Cura, of Buenavista and Caracas; and the gneiss superposed in its turn on the mica-slate and clay-slate of Maniquarez and Chuparuparu in the peninsula of Araya. This hypothesis of a prolongation of every rock, in some sort indefinite, founded on the angle of inclination presented by the strata appearing at the surface, is not admissible; and according to similar equally vague reasoning we should be forced to consider the primitive rocks of the Alps of Switzerland as superposed on the formation of the compact limestone of Achsenberg, and that [transition, or identical with zechstein?] in turn, as being superposed on the mola.s.sus of the tertiary strata.
2. FORMATION OF THE CLAY-SLATE (THONSCHIEFER) OF MALPa.s.sO.
If, in the sketch of the formations of Venezuela, I had followed the received division into primitive, intermediary, secondary and tertiary strata, I might be doubtful what place the last stratum of mica-slate in the peninsula of Araya should occupy. This stratum, in the ravine (aroyo) of Robalo, pa.s.ses insensibly in a carburetted and shining slate, into a real ampelite. The direction and inclination of the stratum remain the same, and the thonschiefer, which takes the look of a transition-rock, is but a modification of the primitive mica-slate of Maniquarez, containing garnets, cyanite, and rutile t.i.tanite. These insensible pa.s.sages from primitive to transition strata by clay-slate, which becomes carburetted at the same time that it presents a concordant position with mica-slate and gneiss, have also been observed several times in Europe by celebrated geologists. The existence of an independent formation of primitive slate (urthonschiefer) may even be doubted, that is, of a formation which is not joined below by strata containing some vestiges of monocotyledonous plants.
The small thonschiefer bed of Malpa.s.so (in the southern chain of the littoral Cordillera) is separated from mica-slate-gneiss by a co-ordinate formation of serpentine and diorite. It is divided into two shelves, of which the upper presents green steat.i.tous slate mixed with amphibole, and the lower, dark-blue slate, extremely fissile, and traversed by numerous veins of quartz. I could discover no fragmentary stratum (grauwacke) nor kieselschiefer nor chiastolite. The kieselschiefer belongs in those countries to a limestone formation. I have seen fine specimens of the chiastolite (macle) which the Indians wore as amulets and which came from the Sierra Nevada de Merida. This substance is probably found in transition-slate, for MM. Rivero and Boussingault observed rocks of clay-slate at the height of 2120 toises, in the Paramo of Mucuchies, on going from Truxillo to Merida.*
(* In Galicia, in Spain, I saw the thonschiefer containing chiastholite alternate with grauwacke; but the chiastolite unquestionably belongs also to rocks which all geologists have hitherto called primitive rocks, to mica-schists intercalated like layers in granite, and to an independent stratum of mica-slate.)
3. FORMATION OF SERPENTINE AND DIORITE (GREEN-STONE OF JUNCALITO.)
We have indicated above a layer of granitiferous serpentine inclosed in the gneiss of Buenavista, or perhaps superposed on that rock; we here find a real stratum of serpentine alternating with diorite, and extending from the ravine of Tucutunemo as far as Juncalito. Diorite forms the great ma.s.s of this stratum; it is of a dark green colour, granular, with small grains, and dest.i.tute of quartz; its ma.s.s is formed of small crystals of felspar intermixed with crystals of amphibole. This rock of diorite is covered at its surface, by the effect of decomposition, with a yellowish crust, like that of basalts and dolerites. Serpentine, of a dull olive-green and smooth fracture, mixed with bluish steat.i.te and amphibole, presents, like almost all the co-ordinate formations of diorite and serpentine (in Silesia, at Fichtelgebirge, in the valley of Baigorry, in the Pyrenees, in the island of Cyprus and in the Copper Mountains of circ.u.mpolar America),*
traces of copper. (* Franklin"s Journey to the Polar Sea page 529.) Where the diorite, partly globular, approaches the green slate of Malpa.s.so, real beds of green slate are found inclosed in diorite. The fine saussurite which we saw in the Upper Orinoco in the hands of the Indians, seems to indicate the existence of a soil of euphotide, superposed on gneiss-granite, or amphibolic slate, in the eastern part of the Sierra Parime.
4. GRANULAR AND MICACEOUS LIMESTONE OF THE MORROS OF SAN JUAN.
The Morros of San Juan rise like ruinous towers in a soil of diorite.
They are formed of a cavernous greyish green limestone of crystalline texture, mixed with some spangles of mica, and are dest.i.tute of sh.e.l.ls. We see in them ma.s.ses of hardened clay, black, fissile, charged with iron, and covered with a crust, yellow from decomposition, like basalts and amphiboles. A compact limestone containing vestiges of sh.e.l.ls adjoins this granular limestone of the Morros of San Juan which is hollow within. Probably on a further examination of the extraordinary strata between Villa de Cura and Ortiz, of which I had time only to collect some few specimens, many phenomena may be discovered a.n.a.logous to those which Leopold von Buch has lately described in South Tyrol. M. Boussingault, in a memoir which he has recently addressed to me, calls the rock of the Morros a problematic calcariferous gneiss. This expression seems to prove that the plates of mica take in some parts a uniform direction, as in the greenish dolomite of Val Toccia.
5. FELSPATHIC SANDSTONE OF THE ORINOCO.
The gneiss-granite of the Sierra Parime is covered in some few places (between the Encaramada and the strait of Baraguan and in the island of Guachaco) in its western part with an olive-brown sandstone, containing grains of quartz and fragments of felspar, joined by an extremely compact clayey cement. This cement, where it abounds, has a conchoidal fracture and pa.s.ses to jasper. It is crossed by small veins of brown iron-ore, which separate into very thin plates or scales. The presence of felspar seems to indicate that this small formation of sandstone (the sole secondary formation hitherto known in the Sierra Parime) belongs to red sandstone or coal.* (* Broken and intact crystals of feldspar are found in the todte liegende coal-sandstone of Thuringia. I observed in Mexico a very singular agglomerated felspar formation superposed upon (perhaps inclosed in) red sandstone, near Guanaxuato.) I hesitate to cla.s.s it with the sandstone of the Llanos, the relative antiquity of which appears to me to be less satisfactorily verified.
6. FORMATION OF THE SANDSTONE OF THE LLANOS OF CALABOZO.
I arrange the various formations in the order which I fancied I could discern on the spot. The carburetted slate (thonschiefer) of the peninsula of Araya connects the primitive rocks of gneiss-granite and mica-slate-gneiss with the transition strata (blue and green slate, diorite, serpentine mixed with amphibole and granular greenish-grey limestone) of Malpa.s.so, Tucutunemo and San Juan. On the south the sandstone of the Llanos rests on this transition strata; it is dest.i.tute of sh.e.l.ls and composed, like the savannahs of Calabozo, of rounded fragments of quartz,* kieselschiefer and Lydian stone, cemented by a ferruginous olive-brown clay. (* In Germany sandstones which belong unquestionably to red sandstone contain also (near Weiderstadt, in Thuringia) nodules, and rounded fragments. I shall not cite the pudding-stone subordinate to the red sandstone of the Pyrenees because the age of that sandstone dest.i.tute of coal may be disputed. Layers of very large rounded nodules of quartz are inclosed in the coal sandstone of Thuringia, and in Upper Silesia.) We there find fragments of wood, in great part monocotyledonous, and ma.s.ses of brown iron-ore. Some strata, as in the Mesa de Paja, present grains of very fine quartz; I saw no fragments of porphyry or limestone. Those immense beds of sandstone that cover the Llanos of the Lower Orinoco and the Amazon well deserve the attention of travellers. In appearance they approximate to the pudding-stones of the mola.s.sus stratum, in which calcareous vestiges are also often wanting, as at Schottwyl and Diesbach in Switzerland; but they appeared to me by their position to have more relation to red sandstone. Nowhere can they be confounded with the grauwackes (fragmentary transition-rocks) which MM.
Boussingault and Rivero found along the Cordilleras of New Grenada, bordering the steppes on the west. Does the want of fragments of granite, gneiss and porphyry, and the frequency of petrified wood,* (*
The people of the country attribute those woods to the Alcornoco, Bowdichia virgilioides (See Nova Gen. et Spec. Plant. volume 3 page 377), and to the Chaparro bovo, Rhopala complicata. It is believed in Venezuela as in Egypt that petrified wood is formed in our times. I found this dicotyledonous petrified wood only at the surface of the soil and not inclosed in the sandstone of the Llanos. M. Caillaud made the same observation on going to the Oasis of Siwa. The trunks of trees, ninety feet long, inclosed in the red sandstone of Kifhauser (in Saxony), are, according to the recent researches of Von Buch, divided into joints, and are certainly monocotyledonous.) sometimes dicotyledonous, indicate that those sandstones belong to the more recent formations which fill the plains between the Cordillera of the Parime and the coast Cordillera, as the mola.s.sus of Switzerland fills the s.p.a.ce between the Jura and the Alps? It is not easy, when several formations are not perfectly developed, to determine the age of arenaceous rocks. The most able geologists do not concur in opinion respecting the sandstone of the Black Forest and of the whole country south-west of the Thuringer Waldgebirge. M. Boussingault, who pa.s.sed through a part of the steppes of Venezuela long after me, is of opinion that the sandstone of the Llanos of San Carlos, that of the valley of San Antonio de Cucuta and the table-lands of Barquisimeto, Tocuyo, Merida and Truxillo belong to a formation of old red sandstone or coal. There is in fact real coal near Carache, south-west of the Paramo de las Rosas.
Before a part of the immense plains of America was geologically examined, it might have been supposed that their uniform and continued horizontality was caused by alluvial soils, or at least by arenaceous tertiary strata. The sands which in the Baltic provinces and in all the north of Germany, cover coa.r.s.e limestone and chalk, seem to justify these systematic ideas, which have been extended to the Sahara and the steppes of Asia. But the observations which we have been able to collect sufficiently prove that both in the Old and the New World, both plains, steppes, and deserts contain numerous formations of different eras, and that these formations often appear without being covered by alluvial deposits. Jura limestone, gem-salt (plains of the Meta and Patagonia) and coal-sandstone are found in the Llanos of South America; quadersandstein,* (* The forms of these rocks in walls and pyramids, or divided in rhomboid blocks, seems no doubt to indicate quadersandstein; but the sandstone of the eastern declivity of the Rocky Mountains in which the learned traveller Mr. James found salt-springs (licks), strata of gypsum and no coal, appear rather to belong to variegated sandstone (buntersandstein).) a saliferous soil, beds of coal,* (* This coal immediately covers, as in Belgium, the grauwacke, or transition-sandstone.) and limestone with trilobites,*
(* In the plains of the Upper Missouri the limestone is immediately covered by a secondary limestone with turritulites, believed to be Jura.s.sic, while a limestone with grypheae, rich in lead-ore and which I should have believed to be still more ancient than oolitic limestone, and a.n.a.logous to lias, is described by Mr. James as lying above the most recent formation of sandstone. Has this superposition been well ascertained?) fill the vast plains of Louisiana and Canada.
In examining the specimens collected by the indefatigable Caillaud in the Lybian desert and the Oasis of Siwa, we recognize sandstone similar to that of Thebes; fragments of petrified dicotyledonous wood (from thirty to forty feet long), with rudiments of branches and medullary concentric layers, coming perhaps from tertiary sandstone with lignites;* (* Formation of mola.s.sus.); chalk with spatangi and anachytes, Jura limestone with nummulites partly agatized; another fine-grained limestone* employed in the construction of the temple of Jupiter Ammon (Omm-Beydah) (* M. von Buch very reasonably inquires whether this statuary limestone, which resembles Parian marble, and limestone become granular by contact with the systematic granite of Predazzo, is a modification of the limestone with nummulites, of Siwa.
The primitive rocks from which the fine-grained marble was believed to be extracted, if there be no deception in its granular appearance, are far distant from the Oasis of Siwa.); and gem-salt with sulphur and bitumen. These examples sufficiently prove that the plains (llanos), steppes and deserts have not that uniform tertiary formation which has been too generally supposed. Do the fine pieces of riband-jasper, or Egyptian pebbles, which M. Bonpland picked up in the savannahs of Barcelona (near Curataquiche), belong to the sandstone of the Llanos of Calabozo or to a stratum superposed on that sandstone? The former of these suppositions would approach, according to the a.n.a.logy of the observations made by M. Roziere in Egypt, the sandstone of Calabozo, or tertiary nagelfluhe.
7. FORMATION OF THE COMPACT LIMESTONE OF c.u.mANACOA.
A bluish-grey compact limestone, almost dest.i.tute of petrifactions, and frequently intersected by small veins of carburetted lime, forms mountains with very abrupt ridges. These layers have the same direction and the same inclination as the mica-slate of Araya. Where the flank of the limestone mountains of New Andalusia is very steep we observe, as at Achsenberg, near Altdorf in Switzerland, layers that are singularly arched or turned. The tints of the limestone of c.u.manacoa vary from darkish grey to bluish white and sometimes pa.s.s from compact to granular. It contains, as substances accidentally disseminated in the ma.s.s, brown iron-ore, spathic iron, even rock-crystal. As subordinate layers it contains (1) numerous strata of carburetted and slaty marl with pyrites; (2) quartzose sandstone, alternating with very thin strata of clayey slate; (3) gypsum with sulphur near Guire in the Golfo Triste on the coast of Paria. As I did not examine on the spot the position of this yellowish-white fine-grained gypsum I cannot determine with any certainty its relative age.
([Footnote not indicated:] This sandstone contains springs. In general it only covers the limestone of c.u.manacoa, but it appeared to me to be sometimes enclosed.)
The only petrifactions of sh.e.l.ls which I found in this limestone formation consist of a heap of turbinites and trochites, on the flank of Turimiquiri, at more than 680 toises high, and an ammonite seven inches in diameter, in the Montana de Santa Maria, north-north-west of Caripe. I nowhere saw the limestone of c.u.manacoa (of which I treat specially in this article) resting on the sandstone of the Llanos; if there be any such superposition it must be found on descending the table-land of Cocollar towards the Mesa de Amana. On the southern coast of the gulf of Cariaco the limestone formation probably covers, without the interposition of another rock, a mica-slate which pa.s.ses to carburetted clay-slate. In the northern part of the gulf I distinctly saw this clayey formation at the depth of two or three fathoms in the sea. The submarine hot springs appeared to me to gush from mica-slate like the petroleum of Maniquarez. If any doubts remain as to the rock on which the limestone of c.u.manacoa is immediately superposed, there is none respecting the rocks which cover it, such as (1) the tertiary limestone of c.u.mana near Punta Delgada and at Cerro de Meapire; (2) the sandstone of Quetepe and Turimiquiri, which, forming layers also in the limestone of c.u.manacoa, belongs properly to the latter soil; the limestone of Caripe which we have often identified in the course of this work with Jura limestone, and of which we shall speak in the following article.
8. FORMATION OF THE COMPACT LIMESTONE OF CARIPE.
Descending the Cuchillo de Guanaguana towards the convent of Caripe, we find another more recent formation, white, with a smooth or slightly conchoidal fracture, and divided in very thin layers, which succeeds to the bluish grey limestone formation of c.u.manacoa. I call this in the first instance the limestone formation of Caripe, on account of the cavern of that name, inhabited by thousands of nocturnal birds. This limestone appeared to me identical (1) with the limestone of the Morro de Barcelona and the Chimanas Islands, which contains small layers of black kieselschiefer (slaty jasper) without veins of quartz, and breaking into fragments of parallelopiped form; (2) with the whitish grey limestone with smooth fracture of Tisnao, which seems to cover the sandstone of the Llanos. We find the formation of Caripe in the island of Cuba (between the Havannah and Batabano and between the port of Trinidad and Rio Guaurabo), as well in the small Cayman Islands.
I have hitherto described the secondary limestone formations of the littoral chain without giving them the systematic names which may connect them with the formations of Europe. During my stay in America I took the limestone of c.u.manacoa for zechstein or Alpine limestone, and that of Caripe for Jura limestone. The carburetted and slightly bituminous marl of c.u.manacoa, a.n.a.logous to the strata of bituminous slate, which are very numerous* in the Alps of southern Bavaria (* I found them also in the Peruvian Andes near Montau, at the height of 1600 toises.), appeared to me to characterize the former of these formations; while the dazzling whiteness of the cavernous stratum of Caripe, and the form of those shelves of rocks rising in walls and cornices, forcibly reminded me of the Jura limestone of Streitberg in Franconia, or of Oitzow and Krzessowic in Upper Silesia. There is in Venezuela a suppression of the different strata which, in the old continent, separate zechstein from Jura limestone. The sandstone of Cocollar, which sometimes covers the limestone of c.u.manacoa, may be considered as variegated sandstone; but it is more probable that in alternating by layers with the limestone of c.u.manacoa, it is sometimes thrown to the upper limit of the formation to which it belongs. The zechstein of Europe also contains a very quartzose sandstone. The two limestone strata of c.u.manacoa and Caripe succeed immediately each other, like Alpine and Jura limestone, on the western declivity of the Mexican table-land, between Sopilote, Mescala and Tehuilotepec. These formations, perhaps, pa.s.s from one to the other, so that the latter may be only an upper shelf of zechstein. This immediate covering, this suppression of interposed soils, this simplicity of structure and absence of oolitic strata, have been equally observed in Upper Silesia and in the Pyrenees. On the other hand the immediate superposition of the limestone of c.u.manacoa on mica-slate and transition clay-slate--the rarity of the petrifactions which have not yet been sufficiently examined--the strata of silex pa.s.sing to Lydian stone, may lead to the belief that the soils of c.u.manacoa and Caripe are of much more ancient formation than the secondary rocks. We must not be surprised that the doubts which arise in the mind of the geologist when endeavouring to decide on the relative age of the limestone of the high mountains in the Pyrenees, the Apennines (south of the lake of Perugia) and in the Swiss Alps, should extend to the limestone strata of the high mountains of New Andalusia, and everywhere in America where the presence of red sandstone is not distinctly recognized.
9. SANDSTONE OF THE BERGANTIN.
Between Nueva Barcelona and the Cerro del Bergantin a quartzose sandstone covers the Jura limestone of c.u.manacoa. Is it an arenaceous rock a.n.a.logous to green sandstone, or does it belong to the sandstone of Cocollar? In the latter case its presence seems to prove still more clearly that the limestones of c.u.manacoa and Caripe are only two parts of the same system, alternating with sandstone, sometimes quartzose, sometimes slaty.
10. GYPSUM OF THE LLANOS OF VENEZUELA.
Deposits of lamellar gypsum, containing numerous strata of marl, are found in patches on the steppes of Caracas and Barcelona; for instance, in the table-land of San Diego, between Ortiz and the Mesa de Paja; and near the mission of Cachipo. They appeared to me to cover the Jura limestone of Tisnao, which is a.n.a.logous to that of Caripe, where we find it mixed with ma.s.ses of fibrous gypsum. I have not given the name formation either to the sandstone of the Orinoco, of Cocollar, of Bergantin or to the gypsum of the Llanos, because nothing as yet proves the independence of those arenaceous and gypsous soils.
I think it will one day be ascertained that the gypsum of the Llanos covers not only the Jura limestone of the Llanos, but that it is sometimes enclosed in it like the gypsum of the Golfo Triste on the east of the Alpine limestone of c.u.manacoa. The great ma.s.ses of sulphur found in the layers, almost entirely clayey, of the steppes (at Guayuta, valley of San Bonifacio, Buen Pastor, confluence of the Rio Pao with the Orinoco) may possibly belong to the marl of the gypsum of Ortiz. These clayey beds are more worthy of attention since the interesting observations of Von Buch and several other celebrated geologists respecting the cavernosity of gypsum, the irregularity of the inclination of its strata and its parallel position with the two declivities of the Hartz and the upheaved chain of the Alps; while the simultaneous presence of sulphur, oligist iron and the sulphurous acid vapours which precede the formation of sulphuric acid, seem to manifest the action of forces placed at a great depth in the interior of the globe.
11. FORMATION OF MURIATIFEROUS CLAY (WITH BITUMEN AND LAMELLAR GYPSUM) OF THE PENINSULA OF ARAYA.
This soil presents a striking a.n.a.logy with salzthon or leberstein (muriatiferous clay) which I have found accompanying gem-salt in every zone. In the salt-pits of Araya (Haraia) it attracted the attention of Peter Martyr d"Anghiera at the beginning of the sixteenth century. It probably facilitated the rupture of the earth and the formation of the gulf of Cariaco. This clay is of a smoky colour, impregnated with petroleum, mingled with lamellar and lenticular gypsum and sometimes traversed by small veins of fibrous gypsum. It incloses angular and less friable ma.s.ses of dark brown clay with a slaty and sometimes conchoidal fracture. Muriate of soda is found in particles invisible to the naked eye. The relations of position or superposition between this soil and the tertiary rocks does not appear sufficiently clear to enable me to p.r.o.nounce with certainty on this element, the most important of positive geology. The co-ordinate layers of gem-salt, muriatiferous clay and gypsum present the same difficulties in both hemispheres; these ma.s.ses, the forms of which are very irregular, everywhere exhibit traces of great commotions. They are scarcely ever covered by independent formations; and after having been long believed, in Europe, that gem-salt was exclusively peculiar to Alpine and transition limestone, it is now still more generally admitted, either from reasoning founded on a.n.a.logy or from suppositions on the prolongation of the strata, that the true location of gem-salt is found in variegated sandstone (buntersandstein). Sometimes gem-salt appears to oscillate between variegated sandstone and muschelkalk.
I made two excursions on the peninsula of Araya. In the first I was inclined to consider the muriatiferous clay as subordinate to the conglomerate (evidently of tertiary formation) of the Barigon and of the mountain of the castle of c.u.mana, because a little to the north of that castle I had found shelves of hardened clay containing lamellar gypsum inclosed in the tertiary strata. I believed that the muriatiferous clay might alternate with the calcareous conglomerate of Barigon; and near the fishermen"s huts situated opposite Macanao, conglomerate rocks appeared to me to pierce through the strata of clay. During a second excursion to Maniquarez and the aluminiferous slates of Chaparuparu, the connexion between tertiary strata and bituminous clay seemed to me somewhat problematical. I examined more particularly the Penas Negras near the Cerro de la Vela, east-south-east of the ruined castle of Araya. The limestone of the Penas is compact, bluish grey and almost dest.i.tute of petrifactions.
It appeared to me to be much more ancient than the tertiary conglomerate of Barigon, and I saw it covering, in concordant position, a slaty clay, somewhat a.n.a.logous to muriatiferous clay. I was greatly interested in comparing this latter formation with the strata of carburetted marl contained in the Alpine limestone of c.u.manacoa. According to the opinions now most generally received, the rock of the Penas Negras may be considered as representing muschelkalk (limestone of Gottingen); and the saliferous and bituminous clay of Araya, as representing variegated sandstone; but these problems can only be solved when the mines of those countries are worked. Those geologists who are of opinion that the gem-salt of Italy penetrates into a stratum above the Jura limestone, and even the chalk, may be led to mistake the limestone of the Penas Negras for one of the strata of compact limestone without grains of quartz and petrifactions, which are frequently found amidst the tertiary conglomerate of Barigon and of the Castillo de c.u.mana; the saliferous clay of Araya would appear to them a.n.a.logous to the plastic clay of Paris,* (* Tertiary sandstone with lignites, or mola.s.sus of Argovia.) or to the clayey shelves (dief et tourtia) of secondary sandstone with lignites, containing salt-springs, in Belgium and Westphalia. However difficult it may be to distinguish separately the strata of marl and clay belonging to variegated sandstone, muschelkalk, quadersandstein, Jura limestone, secondary sandstone with lignites (green and iron sand) and the tertiary strata lying above chalk, I believe that the bitumen which everywhere accompanies gem-salt, and most frequently salt-springs, characterizes the muriatiferous clay of the peninsula of Araya and the island of Marguerita, as linked with formations lying below the tertiary strata. I do not say that they are anterior to that formation, for since the publication of M. von Buch"s observations on the Tyrol, we must no longer consider what is below, in s.p.a.ce, as necessarily anterior, relatively to the epoch of its formation.
Bitumen and petroleum still issue from the mica-slate; these substances are ejected whenever the soil is shaken by a subterranean force (between c.u.mana, Cariaco and the Golfo Triste). Now, in the peninsula of Araya, and in the island of Marguerita, saliferous clay impregnated with bitumen is met with in connexion with this early formation, nearly as gem-salt appears in Calabria in flakes, in basins inclosed in strata of granite and gneiss. Do these circ.u.mstances serve to support that ingenious system, according to which all the co-ordinate formations of gypsum, sulphur, bitumen and gem-salt (constantly anhydrous) result from floods pa.s.sing across the crevices which have traversed the oxidated crust of our planet, and penetrating to the seat of volcanic action. The enormous ma.s.ses of muriate of soda recently thrown up by Vesuvius,* (* The ejected ma.s.ses in 1822 were so considerable that the inhabitants of some villages round Vesuvius collected them for domestic purposes.) the small veins of that salt which I have often seen traverse the most recently ejected lavas, and of which the origin (by sublimation) appears similar to that of oligist iron deposited in the same vents,* (* Gay-Lussac on the action of volcanoes in the Annales de Chimie volume 22 page 418.) the layers of gem-salt and saliferous clay of the trachytic soil in the plains of Peru and around the volcano of the Andes of Quito are well worthy the attention of geologists who would discuss the origin of formations. In the present sketch I confine myself to the mere enumeration of the phenomena of position, indicating, at the same time, some theoretic views, by which observers in more advantageous circ.u.mstances than I was myself may direct their researches.
12. AGGLOMERATE LIMESTONE OF THE BARIGON, OF THE CASTLE OF c.u.mANA, AND OF THE VICINITY OF PORTO CABELLO.
This is a very complex formation, presenting that mixture and that periodical return of compact limestone, quartzose sandstone and conglomerates (limestone breccia) which in every zone peculiarly characterises the tertiary strata. It forms the mountain of the castle of San Antonio near the town of c.u.mana, the south-west extremity of the peninsula of Araya, the Cerro Meapire, south of Caraco and the vicinity of Porto Cabello. It contains (1) a compact limestone, generally of a whitish grey, or yellowish white (Cerro del Barigon), some very thin layers of which are entirely dest.i.tute of petrifactions, while others are filled with cardites, ostracites, pectens and vestiges of lithophyte polypi: (2) a breccia in which an innumerable number of pelagic sh.e.l.ls are found mixed with grains of quartz agglutinated by a cement of carbonate of lime: (3) a calcareous sandstone with very fine rounded grains of quartz (Punta Arenas, west of the village of Maniquarez) and containing ma.s.ses of brown iron ore: (4) banks of marl and slaty clay, containing no spangles of mica, but enclosing selenite and lamellar gypsum. These banks of clay appeared to me constantly to form the lower strata. There also belongs to this tertiary stratum the limestone tufa (fresh-water formation) of the valleys of Aragua near Vittoria, and the fragmentary rock of Cabo Blanco, westward of the port of La Guayra. I must not designate the latter by the name of nagelfluhe, because that term indicates rounded fragments, while the fragments of Cabo Blanco are generally angular, and composed of gneiss, hyaline quartz and chloritic slate, joined by a limestone cement. This cement contains magnetic sand,* (* This magnetic sand no doubt owes its origin to chloritous slate, which, in these lat.i.tudes, forms the bed of the sea.) madrepores, and vestiges of bivalve sea sh.e.l.ls. The different fragments of tertiary strata which I found in the littoral Cordillera of Venezuela, on the two slopes of the northern chain, seem to be superposed near c.u.mana (between Bordones and Punta Delgada); in the Cerro of Meapire; on the [Alpine] limestone of c.u.manacoa; between Porto Cabello and the Rio Guayguaza; as well as in the valleys of Aragua; on granite; on the western declivity of the hill formed by Cabo Blanco, on gneiss; and in the peninsula of Araya, on saliferous clay. But this is perhaps merely the effect of apposition.* (* An-nicht Auflagerung, according to the precise language of the geologists of my country.) If we would range the different members of the tertiary series according to the age of their formation we ought, I believe, to regard the breccia of Cabo Blanco with fragments of primitive rocks as the most ancient, and make it be succeeded by the arenaceous limestone of the castle of c.u.mana, without horned silex, yet somewhat a.n.a.logous to the coa.r.s.e limestone of Paris, and the fresh-water soil of Victoria. The clayey gypsum, mixed with calcareous breccia with madrepores, cardites and oysters, which I found between Carthagena and the Cerro de la Popa, and the equally recent limestones of Guadalope and Barbadoes (limestones filled with seash.e.l.ls resembling those now existing in the Caribbean Sea) prove that the latest deposited strata of the tertiary formation extend far towards the west and north.
These recent formations, so rich in vestiges of organized bodies, furnish a vast field of observation to those who are familiar with the zoological character of rocks. To examine these vestiges in strata superposed as by steps, one above another, is to study the Fauna of different ages and to compare them together. The geography of animals marks out limits in s.p.a.ce, according to the diversity of climates, which determine the actual state of vegetation on our planet. The geology of organized bodies, on the contrary, is a fragment of the history of nature, taking the word history in its proper acceptation: it describes the inhabitants of the earth according to succession of time. We may study genera and species in museums, but the Fauna of different ages, the predominance of certain sh.e.l.ls, the numerical relations which characterize the animal kingdom and the vegetation of a place or of a period, should be studied in sight of those formations. It has long appeared to me that in the tropics as well as in the temperate zone the species of univalve sh.e.l.ls are much more numerous than bivalves. From this superiority in number the organic fossil world furnishes, in every lat.i.tude, a further a.n.a.logy with the intertropical sh.e.l.ls that now live at the bottom of the ocean. In fact, M. Defrance, in a work* full of new and ingenious ideas, not only recognizes this preponderance of the univalves in the number of the species, but also observes that out of 5500 fossil univalve, bivalve and multivalve sh.e.l.ls, contained in his rich collections, there are 3066 univalve, 2108 bivalve, and 326 multivalve; the univalve fossils are therefore to the bivalve as three to two. (*
Table of Organized Fossil Bodies, 1824.)
13. FORMATION OF PYROXENIC AMYGDALOID AND PHONOLITE, BETWEEN ORTIZ AND CERRO DE FLORES.
I place pyroxenic amygdaloid and phonolite (porphyrschiefer) at the end of the formations of Venezuela, not as being the only rocks which I consider as pyrogenous, but as those of which the volcanic origin is probably posterior to the tertiary strata. This conclusion is not deduced from the observations I made at the southern declivity of the littoral Cordillera, between the Morros of San Juan, Parapara and the Llanos of Calabozo. In that region local circ.u.mstances would possibly lead us to regard the amygdaloids of Ortiz as linked to a system of transition rocks (amphibolic serpentine, diorite, and carburetted slate of Malpa.s.so); but the eruption of the trachytes across rocks posterior to the chalk (in the Euganean Mountains and other parts of Europe) joined to the phenomenon of total absence of fragments of pyroxenic porphyry, trachyte, basalt and phonolite (The fragments of these rocks appear only in tufas or conglomerates which belong essentially to basaltic formations or surround the most recent volcanoes. Every volcanic formation is enveloped in breccia, which is the effect of the eruption itself.), in the conglomerates or fragmentary rocks anterior to the recent tertiary strata, renders it probable that the appearance of trap rocks at the surface of the earth is the effect of one of the last revolutions of our planet, even where the eruption has taken place by crevices (veins) which cross gneiss-granite, or the transition rocks not covered by secondary and tertiary formations.
The small volcanic stratum of Ortiz (lat.i.tude 9 degrees 28 minutes to 9 degrees 36 minutes) formed the ancient sh.o.r.e of the vast basin of the Llanos of Venezuela: it is composed on the points where I could examine it of only two kinds of rocks, namely, amygdaloid and phonolite. The greyish blue amygdaloid contains fendilated crystals of pyroxene and mesotype. It forms b.a.l.l.s with concentric layers of which the flattened centre is nearly as hard as basalt. Neither olivine nor amphibole can be distinguished. Before it shows itself as a separate stratum, rising in small conic hills, the amygdaloid seems to alternate by layers with the diorite, which we have mentioned above as mixed with carburetted slate and amphibolic serpentine. These close relations of rocks so different in appearance and so likely to embarra.s.s the observer give great interest to the vicinity of Ortiz.
If the ma.s.ses of diorite and amygdaloid, which appear to us to be layers, are very large veins, they may be supposed to have been formed and upheaved simultaneously. We are now acquainted with two formations of amygdaloid; one, the most common, is subordinate to the basalt: the other, much more rare,* (* We find examples of the latter in Norway (Vardekullen, near Skeen), in the mountains of the Thuringerwald; in South Tyrol; at Hefeld in the Hartz, at Bolanos in Mexico etc.) belongs to the pyroxenic porphyry.* (* Black porphyries of M. von Buch.) The amygdaloid of Ortiz approaches, by its oryctognostic characters, to the former of those formations, and we are almost surprised to find it joining, not basalt, but phonolite,* an eminently felspathic rock, in which we find some crystals of amphibole, but pyroxene very rarely, and never any olivine. (* There are phonolites of basaltic strata (the most anciently known) and phonolites of trachytic strata (Andes of Mexico). The former are generally above the basalts; and the extraordinary development of felspar in that union, and the want of pyroxene, have always appeared to me very remarkable phenomena.) The Cerro de Flores is a hill covered with tabulary blocks of greenish grey phonolite, enclosing long crystals (not fendillated) of vitreous felspar, altogether a.n.a.logous to the phonolite of Mittelgebirge. It is surrounded by pyroxenic amygdaloid; it would no doubt be seen below, issuing immediately from gneiss-granite, like the phonolite of Biliner Stein, in Bohemia, which contains fragments of gneiss embedded in its ma.s.s.
Does there exist in South America another group of rocks, which may be preferably designated by the name of volcanic rocks, and which are as distinct from the chain of the Andes, and advance as far towards the east as the group that bounds the steppes of Calabozo? Of this I doubt, at least in that part of the continent situated north of the Amazon. I have often directed attention to the absence of pyroxenic porphyry, trachyte, basalt and lavas (I range these formations according to their relative age) in the whole of America eastward of the Cordilleras. The existence even of trachyte has not yet been verified in the Sierra Nevada de Merida which links the Andes and the littoral chain of Venezuela. It would seem as if volcanic fire, after the formation of primitive rocks, could not pierce into eastern America. Possibly the scarcity of argentiferous veins observed in those countries may be owing to the absence of more recent volcanic phenomena. M. Eschwege saw at Brazil some layers (veins?) of diorite, but neither trachyte, basalt, dolerite, nor amygdaloid; and he was therefore much surprised to see, in the vicinity of Rio Janeiro, an insulated ma.s.s of phonolite, exactly similar to that of Bohemia, piercing through gneiss. I am inclined to believe that America, on the east of the Andes, would have burning volcanoes if, near the sh.o.r.e of Venezuela, Guiana and Brazil, the series of primitive rocks were broken by trachytes, for these, by their fendillation and open crevices, seem to establish that permanent communication between the surface of the soil and the interior of the globe, which is the indispensable condition of the existence of a volcano. If we direct our course from the coast of Paria by the gneiss-granite of the Silla of Caracas, the red sandstone of Barquisimeto and Tocuyo, the slaty mountains of the Sierra Nevada de Merida, and the eastern Cordillera of Cundinamarca to Popayan and Pasto, taking the direction of west-south-west, we find in the vicinity of those towns the first volcanic vents of the Andes still burning, those which are the most northerly of all South America; and it may be remarked that those craters are found where the Cordilleras begin to present trachytes, at a distance of eighteen or twenty-five leagues from the present coast of the Pacific Ocean.* (* I believe the first hypotheses respecting the relation between the burning of volcanoes and the proximity of the sea are contained in Aetna Dialogus, a very eloquent though little-known work by Cardinal Bembo.) Permanent communications, or at least communications frequently renewed, between the atmosphere and the interior of the globe, have been preserved only along that immense crevice on which the Cordilleras have been upheaved; but subterranean volcanic forces are not less active in eastern America, shaking the soil of the littoral Cordillera of Venezuela and of the Parime group.
In describing the phenomena which accompanied the great earthquake of Caracas,* on the 26th March, 1812, I mentioned the detonations heard at different periods in the mountains (altogether granitic) of the Orinoco. (* I stated in another place the influence of that great catastrophe on the counter-revolution which the royalist party succeeded in bringing about at that time in Venezuela. It is impossible to conceive anything more curious than the negociation opened on the 5th of April, by the republican government, established at Valencia in the valleys of Aragua, with Archbishop Prat (Don Narciso Coll y Prat), to engage him to publish a pastoral letter calculated to tranquilize the people respecting the wrath of the deity. The Archbishop was permitted to say that this wrath was merited on account of the disorder of morals; but he was enjoined to declare positively that politics and systematic opinions on the new social order had nothing in common with it. Archbishop Prat lost his liberty after this singular correspondence.) The elastic forces which agitate the ground, the still-burning volcanoes, the hot sulphurous springs, sometimes containing fluoric acid, the presence of asphaltum and naphtha in primitive strata, all point to the interior of our planet, the high temperature of which is perceived even in mines of little depth, and which, from the times of Herac.l.i.tus of Ephesus, and Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, to the Plutonic theory of modern days, has been considered as the seat of all great disturbances of the globe.
The sketch I have just traced contains all the formations known in that part of Europe which has served as the type of positive geology.
It is the fruit of sixteen months" labour, often interrupted by other occupations. Formations of quartzose porphyry, pyroxenic porphyry and trachyte, of grauwacke, muschelkalk and quadersandstein, which are frequent towards the west, have not yet been seen in Venezuela; but it may be also observed that in the system of secondary rocks of the old continent muschelkalk and quadersandstein are not always clearly developed, and are often, by the frequency of their marls, confounded with the lower layers of Jura limestone. The muschelkalk is almost a lias with encrinites; and quadersandstein (for there are doubtless many above the lias or limestone with gryphites) seems to me to represent the arenaceous layers of the lower shelves of Jura limestone.
I have thought it right to give at some length this geologic description of South America, not only on account of the novel interest which the study of the formations in the equinoctial regions is calculated to excite, but also on account of the honourable efforts which have recently been made in Europe to verify and extend the working of the mines in the Cordilleras of Columbia, Mexico, Chile and Buenos Ayres. Vast sums of money have been invested for the attainment of this useful end. In proportion as public confidence has enlarged and consolidated those enterprises, from which both continents may derive solid advantage, it becomes the duty of persons who have acquired a local knowledge of these countries to publish information calculated to create a just appreciation of the relative wealth and position of the mines in different parts of Spanish America. The success of a company for the working of mines, and that of works undertaken by the order of free governments, is far from depending solely on the improvement of the machines employed for draining off the water, and extracting the mineral, on the regular and economical distribution of the subterraneous works, or the improvements in preparation, amalgamation, and melting: success depends also on a thorough knowledge of the different superposed strata. The practice of the science of mining is closely linked with the progress of geology; and it would be easy to prove that many millions of piastres have been rashly expended in South America from complete ignorance of the nature of the formations, and the position of the rocks, in directing the preliminary researches. At the present time it is not precious metals solely which should fix the attention of new mining companies; the multiplication of steam-engines renders it indispensable, wherever wood is not abundant or easy of transport, to seek at the same time to discover coal and lignites. In this point of view the precise knowledge of the red sandstone, coal-sandstone, quadersandstein and mola.s.sus (tertiary formation of lignites), often covered with basalt and dolerite, is of great practical importance. It is difficult for a European miner, recently arrived, to judge of a country presenting so novel an aspect, and when the same formations cover an immense extent.
I hope that the present work, as well as my Political Essay on New Spain, and my work on the Position of Rocks in the Two Hemispheres, will contribute to diminish those obstacles. They may be said to contain the earliest geologic information respecting places whose subterraneous wealth attracts the attention of commercial nations; and they will a.s.sist in the cla.s.sification of the more precise notions which later researches may add to my labours.
The republic of Colombia, in its present limits, furnishes a vast field for the enterprising spirit of the miner. Gold, platinum, silver, mercury, copper, gem-salt, sulphur and alum may become objects of important workings. The production of gold alone amounted, before the outbreak of the political dissensions, on the average, to 4700 kilogrammes (20,500 marks of Castile) per annum. This is nearly half the quant.i.ty furnished by all Spanish America, a quant.i.ty which has an influence the more powerful on the variable proportions between the value of gold and silver, as the extraction of the former metal has diminished at Brazil, for forty years past, with surprising rapidity.
The quint (a tax which the government raises on gold-washings) which in the Capitania of Minas Geraes was, in 1756, 1761 and 1767, from 118, 102 and 85 arobas of gold (of 14 3/5 kilogrammes), has fallen, during 1800, 1813 and 1818, to 30, 20 and 9 arobas; an arob of gold having, at Rio Janeiro, the value of 15,000 cruzados. According to these estimates the produce of gold in Brazil, making deductions for fraudulent exportation, was, in the middle of the eighteenth century, the years of the greatest prosperity of the gold-washings, 6600 kilogrammes, and in our days, from 1817 to 1820, 600 kilogrammes less.
In the province of San Paulo the extraction of gold has entirely ceased; in the province of Goyaz, it was 803 kilogrammes in 1793 and in 1819 scarcely 75. In the province of Mato Grosso it is almost nothing; and M. Eschwege is of opinion that the whole produce of gold in Brazil does not amount at present to more than 600,000 cruzados (scarcely 440 kilogrammes). I dwell on these particulars because, in confounding the different periods of the riches and poverty of the gold-washings of Brazil, it is still affirmed in works treating of the commerce of the precious metals, that a quant.i.ty of gold equivalent to four millions of piastres (5800 kilogrammes of gold*) flows into Europe annually from Portuguese America. (* This error is twofold: it is probable that Brazilian gold, paying the quint, has not, during the last forty years, risen to 5500 kilogrammes. I heretofore shared this error in common with writers on political economy, in admitting that the quint in 1810 was still (instead of 26 arrobas or 379 kilogrammes) 51,200 Portuguese ounces, or 1433 kilogrammes; which supposed a product of 7165 kilogrammes. The very correct information afforded by two Portuguese ma.n.u.scripts on the gold-washings of Minas Geraes, Minas Novas and Goyaz, in the Bullion Report for the House of Commons, 1810, acc. page 29, goes as far only as 1794, when the quinto do ouro of Brazil was 53 arrobas, which indicates a produce of more than 3900 kilogrammes paying the quint. In Mr. Tooke"s important work, On High and Low Prices part 2 page 2) this produce is still estimated (mean year 1810 to 1821) at 1,736,000 piastres; while, according to official doc.u.ments in my possession, the average of the quint of those ten years amounted only to 15 arrobas, or a product quint of 1095 kilogrammes, or 755,000 piastres. Mr. John Allen reminded the Committee of the Bullion Report, in his Critical Notes on the table of M. Brongniart, that the decrease of the produce of the gold-washings of Brazil had been extremely rapid since 1794; and the notions given by M. Auguste de Saint Hilaire indicate the same desertion of the gold-mines of Brazil. Those who were miners have become cultivators.
The value of an arroba of gold is 15,000 Brazilian cruzados (each cruzado being 50 sous). According to M. Franzini the Portuguese onca is equal to 0.028 of a kilogramme, and 8 oncas make 1 mark; 2 marks make 1 arratel, and 32 arratels 1 arroba.) If, in commercial value, gold in grains prevails, in the republic of Columbia, over the value of other metals, the latter are not on that account less worthy to fix the attention of government and of individuals. The argentiferous mines of Santa Anna, Manta, Santo Christo de las Laxas, Pamplona, Sapo and La Vega de Sapia afford great hope. The facility of the communications between the coast of Columbia and that of Europe imparts the same interest to the copper-mines of Venezuela and New Grenada. Metals are a merchandize purchased at the price of labour and an advance of capital; thus forming in the countries where they are produced a portion of commercial wealth; while their extraction gives an impetus to industry in the most barren and mountainous districts.
END OF VOLUME 3.