_Questions for Examination_.
1. What appearances now threatened the life of Gracchus?
2. How did he commence hostilities?
3. How did Gracchus attempt to divert the storm?
4. Were his friends equally prudent?
5. What unhappy incident increased the animosity?
6. How was this insult revenged?
7. What was the consequence of this outrage?
8. What news did he hear on his arrival?
9. Did he attempt to conciliate his enemies, and were his attempts successful?
10. Was this offer accepted?
11. What was the conduct of the consul?
12. What was the fate of the chiefs?
13. Did Gracchus effect his escape?
14. Did he fall into the hands of his enemies?
15. What artifice did avarice contrive?
16." Was the conduct of Gracchus deserving of praise or blame?
17. By what motives were the Gracchi supposed to be actuated?
18. What was the character of the senate at this period?
19. What was the character of their adherents?
20. What was the nature of their government?
31. What concurred to perpetuate this tyranny?
FOOTNOTE:
[1] From the death of Gracchus until the first consulship of Marius, Rome was governed by a venal and profligate oligarchy, formed from a coalition of the most powerful families. Shame was unknown to this body; the offices of state were openly sold to the highest bidder, redress of grievances was to be obtained only by paying a heavier sum for vengeance than the oppressor would give for impunity: advocacy of popular rights was punished as treason, and complaints were treated as criminal acts of sedition. The young patricians, under such a system, became the scourge of the state, for nothing remained safe from their violence or their l.u.s.t, when the monopoly of judicial office by their friends and relatives insured them impunity for every excess, however flagrant or disgraceful.
CHAPTER XVIII.
SECTION I.
FROM THE SEDITION OF GRACCHUS TO THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA, WHICH WAS THE FIRST STEP TOWARDS THE RUIN OF THE COMMONWEALTH.--U.C.
634.
By brutal Marius, and keen Sylla, first Effused the deluge dire of civil blood, Unceasing woes began.--_Thomson_.
1. While the Romans were in this state of deplorable corruption at home, they nevertheless were very successful in their transactions with foreign powers.
2. Among other victories, a signal one was gained over Jugur"tha, king of Numid"ia. He was grandson to Ma.s.sinis"sa, who sided with Rome against Hannibal, and educated with the two young princes, who were left to inherit the kingdom. 3. Being superior in abilities to both, and greatly in favour with the people, he murdered Hiemp"sal, the eldest son, but Adher"bal, the younger, escaped, and fled to the Romans for succour. 4. Jugur"tha, sensible how much avarice and injustice had crept into the senate, sent his amba.s.sadors to Rome with large presents, which so successfully prevailed, that the senate decreed him half the kingdom thus acquired by murder and usurpation, and sent ten commissioners to divide it between him and Adher"bal. 5.
The commissioners, of whom Opim"ius, the enemy of Gracchus, was one, willing to follow the example which the senate had set them, were also bribed to bestow the richest and most populous parts of that kingdom upon the usurper. 6. But Jugur"tha resolved to possess himself of the whole: and willing to give a colour to his ambition, he only made, in the beginning, incursions in order to provoke reprisals, which he knew how to convert into seeming aggression. 7. This scheme failing, he resolved to throw off the mask, and besieging Adher"bal in Cirta, his capital, he at length got him into his power, and murdered him. 8. The Roman people, who had still some generosity remaining, unanimously complained of this treachery, and procured a decree that Jugur"tha should be summoned in person before them, to give an account of all such as had accepted bribes. 9. Jugur"tha made no difficulty of throwing himself upon the clemency of Rome; but not giving the people satisfaction, he had orders to depart the city.[1] 10. In the meantime, Alba"nus, the consul, was sent with an army to follow him, who giving up the direction of it to Au"lus, his brother; a person who was every way unqualified for the command, the Romans were compelled to hazard a battle upon disadvantageous terms; and the whole army, to avoid being cut to pieces, was obliged to pa.s.s under the yoke.
11. In this condition Metel"lus, the succeeding consul, found affairs upon his arrival in Numid"ia; officers in whom the soldiers had no confidence, an army without discipline, and an enemy ever watchful and intriguing. 12. However, by his great attention to business, and by integrity that shuddered at corruption, he soon began to retrieve the affairs of Rome, and the credit of the army. In the s.p.a.ce of two years, Jugur"tha was overthrown in several battles, forced out of his own dominions, and constrained to beg a peace. 13. Thus all things promised Metel"lus a happy termination of the war; but he was frustrated in his expectations by the intrigues of Ca"ius Ma"rius, his lieutenant, who came in to reap that harvest of glory which the other"s industry had sown. 14. Ca"ius Ma"rius was born in a village near Apin"ium, of poor parents, who gained their living by their labour. As he had been bred up in a partic.i.p.ation of their toils, his manners were as rude as his countenance was frightful. He was a man of extraordinary stature, incomparable strength, and undaunted bravery.
15. When Metel"lus was obliged to solicit at Rome for a continuance of his command, Ma"rius, whose ambition knew no bounds, was resolved to obtain it for himself, and thus gain all the glory of putting an end to the war. 16. To that end he privately inveighed against Metel"lus by his emissaries at Rome, and having excited a spirit of discontent against him, he had leave granted him to go there to stand for the consulship, which he obtained, contrary to the expectation and interest of the n.o.bles.
17. Marius, being thus invested with the supreme power of managing the war, showed himself every way fit for the commission. His vigilance was equal to his valour, and he quickly made himself master of the cities which Jugur"tha had yet remaining in Numid"ia.[2] 18. This unfortunate prince, finding himself unable to make opposition singly was obliged to have recourse for a.s.sistance to Bocchus, king of Maurita"nia, to whose daughter he was married. A battle soon after ensued, in which the Numid"ians surprised the Roman camp by night, and gained a temporary advantage. However, it was but of short continuance, for Ma"rius soon after overthrew them in two signal engagements, in one of which not less than ninety thousand of the African army were slain. 19. Bocchus now finding the Romans too powerful to be resisted, did not think it expedient to hazard his own crown, to protect that of his ally; he, therefore, determined to make peace, upon whatever conditions he might obtain it; and accordingly sent to Rome, imploring protection. 20. The senate received the amba.s.sadors with their usual haughtiness, and without complying with their request, granted the suppliant, not their friendship, but their pardon. Notwithstanding, after some time, he was given to understand, that the delivering up of Jugur"tha to the Romans would, in some measure, conciliate their favour, and soften their resentment. 21. At first the pride of Bocchus struggled against such a proposal; but a few interviews with Sylla reconciled him to this treacherous measure, and Jugur"tha was given up, being drawn into an ambuscade by the specious pretences of his ally, who deluded him by desiring a conference; and being made a prisoner, he was loaded with chains, and carried by Ma"rius to Rome, a deplorable instance of blighted ambition. 22. He did not long survive his overthrow, being condemned by the senate to be starved to death in prison, a short time after he had been made to adorn the triumph of the conqueror.[3]
23. Ma"rius, by this and two succeeding victories over the Gauls, having become very formidable to distant nations in war, became soon after much more dangerous to his fellow-citizens in peace. 24. The strength which he had given to the popular party every day grew more conspicuous, and the Italians, being frustrated by the intrigues of the senate in their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome, resolved upon obtaining by force, what was refused them as a favour. This gave rise to the Social War, in which most of the states of Italy entered into a confederacy against Rome, in order to obtain a redress of their grievances.
25. After a lapse of two years, this war having continued to rage with doubtful success, the senate began to reflect that, whether conquered or conquerors, the power of the Romans was in danger of being destroyed. 26. To soften, therefore, their compliance by degrees, they began by giving the freedom of the city to such of the Italian states as had not revolted. They then offered it to such as would lay down their arms. 27. This unexpected bounty had its effect; the allies, with mutual distrust, offered each a separate treaty; the senate took them one by one into favour, but gave the freedom of the city in such a manner, that, not being empowered to vote until all the other tribes had given their suffrages, they had very little weight in the const.i.tution.
28. This destructive war being concluded, the senate began to think of turning their arms against Mithrida"tes, the most powerful and warlike monarch of the east.[4] 29. For this expedition Ma"rius had long been preparing, but Sylla had interest enough to get himself appointed to the expedition. Ma"rius, however, tried all his arts with the people to get his appointment reversed; and the command of the army, intended to oppose Mithrida"tes, was ordered to be transferred from Sylla to Ma"rius. 30. In consequence of this, Ma"rius immediately sent officers from Rome, to take the command in his name. But instead of being obeyed, the officers were slain, and Sylla was entreated by the army to lead them directly to take signal vengeance upon all his enemies at Rome.
31. Accordingly, his soldiers entered the city sword in hand, as a place taken by storm. Ma"rius and Sulpi"cius, at the head of a tumultuary body of their partisans, attempted to oppose their entrance; and the citizens themselves, who feared the sackage of the place, threw down stones and tiles from the houses upon the intruders.
32. So unequal a conflict lasted longer than could have been expected; at length Ma"rius and his party were obliged to seek safety by flight, after having vainly offered liberty to the slaves who would a.s.sist them.
_Questions for Examination._
1. Was this internal degeneracy of the Roman people accompanied by ill success abroad?
2. What signal victory did they obtain, and who was Jugurtha?
3. By what means did he obtain the crown?
4. How did he propitiate the Romans?
5. How did these commissoners? discharge their trust?
6. Was Jugurtha satisfied with this allotment?
7. Did this answer his purpose?