Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate.
Exercise 2
Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repet.i.tion of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:
One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education.
As a result we have our public schools of today.
Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression.
Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression.
Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of such liberty as we enjoy.
Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal.
Our public school system is the most democratic of our inst.i.tutions.
There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal.
The public school system has been made to serve the master cla.s.s.
We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality.
Have we realized the ideal?
Is there universal education?
Is there education for every child beneath the flag?
The grounds of our public schools have cost millions.
The buildings have cost millions.
The courses of study are many.
They are varied.
They are elaborate.
But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast.
The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast.
CLa.s.sES OF CONJUNCTIONS
+329.+ Conjunctions are divided into cla.s.ses, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.
We are united _and_ we shall win.
_When_ we are united, we shall win.
In the first sentence the conjunction _and_ connects the two clauses, _we are united_ and _we shall win_. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance.
But by the use of the conjunction _when_, instead of the conjunction _and_, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying, _We are united and we shall win_, and _When we are united we shall win_.
By connecting these two statements with the conjunction _when_, we have made of the clause, _we are united_, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phrase _shall win_. It tells _when_ we shall win, just as much as if we had used an _adverb_ to modify the verb phrase, and had said, _We shall win tomorrow_, instead of, _We shall win when we are united_.
So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunction _and_, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunction _when_, which connects a dependent clause to the princ.i.p.al clause.
+330.+ So the conjunctions like _and_ are called co-ordinate conjunctions. _Co-ordinate_ means literally of equal rank or order.
Conjunctions like _when_ are called sub-ordinate conjunctions.
_Sub-ordinate_ means of inferior rank or order.
So we have our definitions:
+331.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.+
+A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.+
+A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the princ.i.p.al clause.+
CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
+332.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank.+ The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; _and_, _but_, _or_, _nor_.
+333.+ But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:
I am not in favor of the motion, _nevertheless_ I shall vote for it.
The deputies voted for the war appropriation, _notwithstanding_ they had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda.
I did not believe in the change, _however_ I did not oppose it.
+334.+ The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are; _therefore_, _hence_, _still_, _besides_, _consequently_, _yet_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _else_, _than_, _also_, _accordingly_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _otherwise_, _however_, _so_ and _furthermore_.
These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements.
+335.+ We often use these conjunctions, and also, _and_, _but_, _or_, and _nor_, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.
+336.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.+
NOUNS
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more _nouns_ used as the subject of a verb. As:
_Death_ and _disaster_ follow in the wake of war.
In this sentence, _death_ is just as much the subject of the verb _follow_ as is the word _disaster_, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called the _compound subject_, for it consists of two simple subjects.
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the _object_ of a verb.
He studies history and science.
In this sentence the words _history_ and _science_ are both used as objects of the verb _studies_.
Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a _preposition_.
He called for the letters and the papers.
In this sentence _letters_ and _papers_ are both objects of the preposition _for_, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_.
Exercise 3
Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects.