The heat of the body, as has already been observed, continues at the same degree, though the temperature of the atmosphere be sometimes considerably hotter, at other times considerably colder, than the animal body: so that man is able to live, and to preserve the temperature of health, on the burning sands of Africa, and on the frozen plains of Siberia.
The alterations of temperature which the human body has been known to bear, without any fatal or even bad effects, are not less than 400 degrees or 500 degrees of Fahrenheit. The natural heat of the human body is 96 degrees or 97 degrees. In the West Indies, the heat of the atmosphere is often 98 degrees or 99 degrees, and sometimes rises even to 126 degrees, or 30 degrees above the temperature of the human body, notwithstanding which, a thermometer put in the mouth points to 96 degrees or 97 degrees. The inhabitants of the hot regions of Surinam support, without inconvenience, the heat of their climate. We are a.s.sured that in Senegal, about the lat.i.tude of 17 degrees, the thermometer in the shade generally stands at 108 degrees, without any fatal effects to men or animals. The Russians often live in places heated by stoves to 108 degrees or 109 degrees, and some philosophers in this country, by way of experiment, remained a considerable time in a room heated above the boiling point of water.
On the other hand, an equal excess of cold seems to have no greater effect in altering the degree of heat proper to animal bodies.
Delisle has observed a cold in Siberia 70 degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit"s scale, notwithstanding which animals lived. Gmelin has seen the inhabitants of Jeniseisk under the 58th degree of northern lat.i.tude, sustaining a degree of cold, which in January became so severe, that the spirit in the thermometer was 126 degrees below the freezing point. Professor Pallas in Siberia, and our countrymen at Hudson"s Bay, have experienced a degree of cold almost equal to this.
All these facts tend to prove, that the heat of animals continues without alteration in very different temperatures. Hence it is evident that they must be able to produce a greater degree of heat, when surrounded by a cold medium; and on the contrary, that they must effect a diminution of the heat, when the surrounding medium is very hot.
All these circ.u.mstances may be accounted for, by the principles we have laid down; the decomposition of oxygen in the lungs.
There have not been wanting, however, some very eminent physiologists, who have contended that animal heat is produced chiefly by the nerves. They have brought forward in proof of this the well known fact, that when the spinal marrow is injured, the temperature of the body generally becomes diminished; and that in a paralytic limb the heat is less than ordinary, though the strength and velocity of the pulse remain the same. These facts, and others of a similar nature, have induced them to believe, that the nervous system is the chief cause and essential organ of heat; and they have adduced similar arguments, to prove that nutrition is performed by the nerves, for a limb which is paralytic from an injury of the nerves, wastes, though the circulation continues. The truth is, that the nerves exert their influence upon these, and all other functions of the body, and modify their action. The liver secretes bile, but if the nerves leading to it be destroyed, the secretion of bile will cease; but who will say, that the bile is secreted by the nerves? The nitric acid will dissolve metals, and this solution will go on more quickly if heat be applied; but surely the nitric acid is the solvent, the heat being only an aiding cause.
But though the human body has been so wisely constructed, as to bear, without inconvenience, a considerable variation of temperature; yet this lat.i.tude has its limits, which depend upon the capability of extricating heat from the atmosphere. There must be a limit below which the diminution of heat takes place faster than its production.
If this be continued, or increased, the heat of the animal must diminish, the functions lose their energy, and an insuperable inclination to sleep is felt, in which if the sufferer indulge, he will be sure to wake no more.
This is confirmed by what happened to Sir Joseph Banks and his party on the heights of Terra del Fuego. Dr. Solander, who had more than once crossed the mountains which divide Sweden from Norway, well knew that extreme cold produces an irresistible torpor and sleepiness, he therefore conjured the company to keep always in motion, whatever exertion it might require, and however great might be their inclination to rest. Whoever sits down, says he, will sleep; and whoever sleeps will wake no more. Thus, at once admonished and alarmed, they set forward; but, while they were still upon the naked rocks, the cold was so intense, as to produce the effects which had been so much dreaded. Dr. Solander himself was the first who found the inclination against which he had warned others, irresistible; and insisted on being suffered to lie down. Sir Joseph entreated and remonstrated in vain; he lay down upon the ground, though it was covered with snow; and it was with great difficulty that his friend kept him from sleeping. One of his black servants also began to linger, having suffered from the cold in the same manner as the Doctor. Partly by persuasion, and partly by force, they were got forwards; soon however they both declared that they would go no further. Sir Joseph had recourse again to entreaty and expostulation, but these produced no effect: when the black was told, that if he did not go on, he would shortly be frozen to death; he answered, that he desired nothing so much as to lie down and die. The Doctor did not so explicitly renounce his life, but said, he would go on, if they would first allow him to take some sleep, though he had before told them, that to sleep was to perish. They both in a few minutes fell into a profound sleep, and after five minutes Sir Joseph Banks happily succeeded in waking Dr. Solander, who had almost lost the use of his limbs; the muscles were so shrunk, that his shoes fell from his feet; but every attempt to recal the unfortunate black to life proved unsuccessful.
As the circulation of the blood is the means by which the heat produced is conveyed to all parts of the body; and as it is a function of the highest importance, I shall, in the next lecture, proceed to the consideration of it.
LECTURE III.
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.
Two kinds of motion may be distinguished in the animal economy; the one voluntary, or under the command of the will, which takes place at certain intervals, but may be stopped at pleasure. The other kind of motion is called involuntary, as not depending on the will, but going on constantly, without interruption, both when we sleep and when we wake.
Of the first kind is the motion of the limbs, of which I have already spoken in general terms; the object of which is, to change the situation of the animal, and carry it where the will directs.
Among the involuntary motions, the most remarkable is the circulation of the blood, which I shall proceed to consider in this lecture.
There is one motion, however, which claims a middle place between the voluntary and involuntary; I mean respiration. This action is so far under the command of the will, that it may be suspended, increased, or diminished in strength and frequency: but we can only suspend it for a very short time; and it goes on regularly during sleep, and in general, even when we are awake, without the intervention of the will; its continuation being always necessary, as we have already seen, to support life.
The motion of the fluids in the living body is regulated by very different laws, from those which govern the motion of ordinary fluids, that depend upon their gravity and fluidity: these last have a general centre of gravitation to which they incessantly tend. Their motion is from above downwards, when not prevented by any obstacles; and when they meet with obstruction, they either stop till the obstacle is removed, or escape where they find the least resistance.
When they have reached the lowest situations, they remain at rest, unless acted upon by some internal impulse, which again puts them in motion.
But the motion of the fluids in an animal body, is less uniform, constant, and regular; it takes place upwards as well as downwards, and overcomes numerous obstacles; it carries the blood from the interior parts of the body to the surface, and from the surface back again to the internal parts; it forces it from the left side of the body to the right, and with such rapidity that not a particle of the fluid remains an instant in the same place.
The princ.i.p.al organ concerned in the circulation of the blood, is the heart; which is a hollow muscle, of a conical figure, with two cavities, called ventricles; this organ is situated in the thorax or chest; its apex or point is inclined downwards and to the left side, where it is received in a cavity of the left lobe of the lungs.
At the basis of the heart on each side are situated two cavities, called auricles, to receive the blood; and these contracting, force the blood into the ventricles, which are two cavities in the heart, separated from each other by a strong muscular part.i.tion. The cavity which is situated on the right side of the heart, is called the right ventricle, and that on the left the left ventricle. From the right ventricle of the heart issues a large artery, called the pulmonary artery, which goes to the lungs, and is there divided and subdivided into a vast number of branches, the extremities of which are too small to be visible. These ultimate ramifications unite again into larger branches; these again into branches still larger, and so continually, till at last they form four tubes, called the pulmonary veins, which are inserted into the left auricle of the heart,
From the left ventricle of the heart there issues another large artery, called the aorta, which, in its pa.s.sage, sends off branches to the heart, arms, legs, head, and every other part of the body.
These branches, in the course of their progress, are divided and subdivided into innumerable minute ramifications, the last of which are invisible. These small ramifications unite again into branches continually larger and larger, till they form two great tubes, called the venae cavae; which large veins are inserted into the right auricle of the heart; where a vein, termed the coronary vein of the heart, which returns the blood from the heart itself, also terminates.
From what has been said, it will be evident, that strictly speaking, there are only two arteries and seven veins in the body; one pulmonary artery, which carries the blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs, and four pulmonary veins, which bring it back again; then the aorta or large artery, which carries the blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all parts of the body; the two venae cavae, and the coronary vein of the heart, which bring it back again.
At the beginning of both arteries, where they leave the heart, are placed valves, which allow the blood to flow freely from the heart into the arteries, but which prevent its return to the heart. There are likewise valves between the auricles and ventricles, which permit the blood to flow from the former into the latter, but prevent its return into the auricles. The veins are likewise furnished with valves, which allow the blood to flow from their minute branches along the larger toward the heart, but prevent its returning to these minute branches.
The blood being brought back from all parts of the body into the right auricle of the heart, distends this cavity, and thus causes it to contract; this auricle, by contracting, forces the blood into the right ventricle; this muscular cavity being distended and irritated by the blood, contracts, and propels the blood through the pulmonary artery into the lungs: from hence it is brought back by the pulmonary veins, to the left auricle of the heart, by whose contraction it is forced into the left ventricle. The contraction of this ventricle propels the blood, with great force, into the aorta, through the innumerable ramifications of which, it is carried to every part of the body, and brought back by veins, which accompany these arterial ramifications, and form the venae cavae, which conduct the blood into the right auricle of the heart, from whence it is again sent into the right ventricle, which sends it through the pulmonary artery, to the lungs; the pulmonary veins bring it back again to the heart, from whence it is propelled through the aorta, to all parts of the body: thus running a perpetual round, called the circulation of the blood.
Thus then we see, that the circulation consists of two circles or stages, one through the lungs, which may be called the pulmonary, or lesser circle, and the other through all parts of the body, which may be termed the aortal, or greater circle.
That the blood circulates in this manner, is evident, from the valves placed at the origin of the arteries, and in the large branches of the veins, which prevent the return of the blood to the heart, in any other manner than that I have described. This is likewise evident, in the common operation of blood letting: when the arm is tied, the vein swells below the ligature, instead of above, and we do not make the opening above the ligature, or on the side next the heart. If the vein were opened above the ligature, it would not bleed. For it only swells next the hand, which shows that the blood does not flow into the vein downwards from the heart, but upwards from the hand.
If the ligature be too tight, the blood will not flow through the opening in the vein. The reason of this, is, that the artery is compressed, in this case, as well as the vein; and as the veins derive their blood from the arteries, it follows that if the blood"s motion be obstructed in the latter, none can flow from them into the former: when we wish to open an artery, the orifice must be made above the ligature.
Another proof of the circulation being performed in this manner, is derived from microscopic observations, on the transparent parts of animals, in which the blood can be seen to move towards the extremities, along the arteries, and return by the veins.
The blood, however, does not flow out of the heart into the arteries in a continued stream, but by jets, or pulses; when the ventricles are filled with blood from the auricles, this blood stimulates them, and thereby causes them to contract; by such contraction, they force the blood, which they contain, into the arteries; this contraction is called the systole of the heart. As soon as they have finished their contraction, they relax, till they are again filled with blood from the auricles, and this state of relaxation of the heart, is called the diastole.
This causes the pulsation or beating of the heart. The arteries must, of course, have a similar pulsation, the blood being driven into them only by starts; and accordingly we find it in the artery of the wrist; this beating we call the pulse; the like may also be observed in the arteries of the temples, and other parts of the body. The veins, however, have no pulsation, for the blood flowing on, in an uninterrupted course, from smaller tubes to wider, its pulse becomes entirely destroyed.
The different cavities of the heart do not contract at the same time; but the two auricles contract together, the ventricles being at that time in a state of relaxation; these ventricles then contract together, while the auricles become relaxed.
Both the arteries and veins may be compared to a tree, whose trunk is divided into large branches; these are subdivided into smaller, the smaller again into others still smaller; and we may observe, likewise, that the sum of the capacities of the branches, which arise from any trunk, is always greater than the capacity of the trunk.
The minutest branches of the arteries, being reflected, become veins, or else they enter veins that are already formed, by anastomosis, as it is called; the small veins continually receiving others, become, like a river, gradually larger, till they form the venae cavae, which conduct the blood to the heart.
Anatomical injections prove, that the last branches of the arteries terminate in the beginning of veins; but it is the opinion of many celebrated physiologists, that the arteries carry the blood to the different parts of the body to nourish them, and that the veins commence by open mouths, which absorb or suck up what is superfluous, and return it back to the heart.
From what has been said, it must be evident that there is a considerable resemblance between the circulation of the blood in the animal body, and the circulation of the aqueous fluid on the surface of the globe. In the latter case the water is raised from the ocean, by the heat of the sun, and poured down upon the dry land, in minute drops, for the nourishment and economy of its different parts. What is superfluous is collected into little rills; these meeting with others, form brooks; the union of which produce rivers, that conduct the water to its original source, from which it is again circulated.
In the same manner, the blood is sent by the heart to different parts of the body, for the nourishment and economy of its different parts; what is superfluous is brought back by veins, which, continually uniting, form those large trunks, which convey the vital fluid to the heart.
The blood does not circulate, however, in the manner which I have mentioned, in all parts of the body; for that which is carried by arteries to the viscera, serving for digestion, such as the stomach, bowels, mesentery, omentum, and spleen, is collected by small veins which unite into a large trunk called the vena portarum; this vein enters the liver, and is subdivided in it like an artery, distributing through the liver a great quant.i.ty of blood, from which the bile is secreted: and, having served this purpose, the blood is collected by small veins; these unite and form the hepatic vein, which pours the blood into the vena cava, to be conducted to the heart.
The reason of this deviation, is probably, to diminish the velocity of the blood in the liver, for the secretion of the bile; which could not have been effected by means of an artery.
The force which impels the blood, is, first, the contraction of the heart, which propels the blood into the arteries with great velocity; but this is not the only force concerned in keeping up the circulation; this is evident, from the diminished heat, and weakened pulse, in a paralytic limb, which ought not to take place, if the blood were propelled merely by the action of the heart.
The arteries are possessed of an elastic and muscular power, by means of which they contract when they are distended or stimulated. It is however by the muscular power alone, that they a.s.sist in propelling the blood; for the elasticity of their coats can serve no other purpose than preserving the mean diameter of the vessel. If we suppose the arteries to be dilated by the blood, poured into them by the heart, they will, by their contraction, as elastic tubes, undoubtedly propel the blood: but supposing them to be perfectly elastic, the force of the heart will be just as much diminished in dilating them as the force of the blood is increased by their contraction. We are not however acquainted with any substance perfectly elastic, or which restores itself with a force equal to that with which it was distended: hence the elastic power of the arteries will subtract from, instead of adding to, the power of the heart. It is evident, therefore, that it must be by the muscular power of the arteries, which causes them to contract like the heart, that they propel the blood.
That such is the case, appears from the muscular structure of the arteries observed by anatomists; as also from the effects of mechanical irritation of their coats, which causes them to contract; this is likewise evident from the inflammation produced by the application of stimulating substances to particular parts; for instance, cantharides and mustard. It appears likewise, from the secretion in some parts being preternaturally increased, while the motion of the general ma.s.s of the blood continues unaltered.
The contraction of the arteries always propels the blood towards the extreme parts of the body: this must necessarily happen, because the valves at the origin of the arteries prevent its return to the heart, it must therefore move in the direction in which it finds least resistance.
If it were not for this muscular power of the arteries, the force of the heart would not alone be able to propel the blood to the extreme parts of the body, and overcome the different kinds of resistance it has to encounter. Among the causes that lessen the velocity of the blood, may be mentioned the increasing area of the artery; for it was before observed, that the sum of the cavities of the branches from any trunk exceeded the cavity of the trunk: and from the principles of hydrostatics, the velocities of fluids, propelled by the same force, in tubes of different diameters, are inversely as the squares of the diameters, so that in a tube of double the diameter, the velocity will only be one fourth; in one of the triple, only one ninth: and since the arteries may be looked upon as conical, it is evident that the velocity of the blood must be diminished from this cause.
The curvilinear course of the arteries likewise gives considerable resistance; for at every bending the blood loses part of its momentum against the sides; and this loss is evidently proportioned to the magnitude of the angle, at which the branch goes off. Convolutions are frequently made, in order to diminish the force of the blood in particular organs; this is especially the case with the carotid artery before it enters the brain.
The angles which the ramifications of the arteries make, are greater or more obtuse nearer the heart, and more acute as the distance increases; by which means the velocity of the blood is rendered more equal in different parts.
The anastomosing or union of different branches of arteries, likewise r.e.t.a.r.ds the velocity of the blood, the particles of which, from different vessels, impinging, disturb each other"s motion, and produce a compound force, in which there is always a loss of velocity: and it is evident, from the composition of forces, that this loss must be proportioned to the obliquity of the angle at which the vessels unite.
The adhesion of the blood to the sides of the vessels, likewise causes a loss of velocity in the minuter branches, which may be owing to a chemical affinity: the viscidity or imperfect fluidity of the blood is another r.e.t.a.r.ding cause. All these causes united, would render it impossible for the heart to propel the blood with the velocity with which it moves in the very minute branches of the arteries, if these arteries were not endowed with a living muscular power like the heart, by which they contract and propel their contents.
In the veins, the motion of the blood is occasioned partly by the vis a tergo, and partly by the contraction of the neighbouring muscles, which press upon the veins; and these veins being furnished with valves, the return of the blood towards the arteries is prevented; it must therefore move towards the heart.
That the contraction of the muscles of the body tends very much to promote the circulation of the blood, is evident, from the increase of the circulation from exercise, and likewise from the languid motion of the blood in sedentary persons, and those given to indolence. Hence we may account for the different diseases to which such persons are subject, and know how to apply the proper remedies.
Hence likewise, we see the reason why rest is so absolutely necessary in acute and inflammatory diseases, where the momentum of the blood is already too great.
It has been doubted by anatomists, whether the veins were possessed with muscular power; but this seems now to be confirmed. Haller found the vena cava near the heart to contract on the application of stimulants, though he could see no muscular fibres; these, however, have been discovered by succeeding anatomists.