67 Ibid., 24850.
68 Ibid., 250. The white cases equaled 57.5 percent of the total reported cases. The U.S. Census of 1900 found that 45.2 percent of the population of Alabama was black. Negroes in the United States, 20.
69 C. P. Wertenbaker, "Smallpox at Middlesborough, Ky.,-(Continued.)," PHR, 13 (Apr. 1, 1898), 300303. "Locals," MWR, Mar. 24, 1898, 1.
70 Wertenbaker, "Smallpox at Middlesborough, Ky.,-(Continued.)," 301. "A Decided Improvement," MWR, Mar. 24, 1898, 4.
71 Hill Hastings, "Smallpox at Middlesborough, Ky.-(Concluded.)," PHR, 13 (Apr. 22, 1898), 37981, esp. 379. Wertenbaker, "Smallpox at Middlesborough, Ky.,-(Continued.)," 300. "Decided Improvement."
72 Wertenbaker, "Smallpox at Middlesborough, Ky.,-(Continued.)," 3012. Hastings, "Smallpox at Middlesborough," 380.
73 Hastings, "Smallpox at Middlesborough, Ky.-(Concluded.)," 37981.
74 KBOH 189899, 2324.
75 Ibid., 2324, 3435.
76 Bell County v. Blair, filed May 11, 1899, in KBOH 189899, 17980.
77 Matheny, Magic City, 229. KBOH 190001, 18.
78 Surgeon General Walter Wyman, "Principles Governing the Extension of Aid to Local Authorities in the Matter of Smallpox," in USSGPHMHS 1898, 630. The cash figure is from an unt.i.tled item in the MWR, Apr. 14, 1898, 6.
79 Wyman, "Principles," 630.
THREE: WHEREVER WERTENBAKER WENT.
1 Photographs of Wertenbaker in the uniforms of the Warrenton Rifles and the Marine-Hospital Service, as well as various medals for his service in the Virginia Volunteers (state militia), survive in PCPW. C. P. Wertenbaker note, "In the event of my death . . . ," Dec. 27, 1915, ibid. See U.S. Marine-Hospital Service, Regulations Concerning Uniforms (Washington, 1891).
2 Wertenbaker describes his smallpox inspection suit in "Plan of Organization for the Suppression of Smallpox," draft, CPWL, vol. 6.
3 On the geographical mobility of southern laborers, particularly in the rural nonagricultural sector, see Jacqueline Jones, The Dispossessed: America"s Undercla.s.ses from the Civil War to the Present (New York, 1992), 12766.
4 James A. Tobey, Public Health Law, 1. On the Service, see Laurence F. Schmeckebier, The Public Health Service: Its History, Activities, and Organization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1923); Robert Straus, Medical Care for Seamen: The Origin of Public Medical Services in the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950). Ralph Chester Williams, The United States Public Health Service, 17981950 (Washington: Whittet E. Shepperson, 1951). See also John Duffy, The Sanitarians, 15774, 23955; Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the "Immigrant Menace" (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
5 In addition to running its 22 hospitals and 107 relief stations for the nation"s merchant marine, manning immigrant inspection stations, and advising southern communities as they fought smallpox, the Service was occupied with an outbreak of bubonic plague in San Francisco. [Walter Wyman], "Resume of the Operations of the U.S. Marine-Hospital Service," PHR, 14 (Dec. 22, 1899), 227583.
6 "Death, Here, of Noted Surgeon." "Genealogical Material Re the Wertenbaker and Related Families," PCPW. Historical Data Systems, comp., American Civil War Soldiers (Provo, UT: Generations Network, 1999).
7 U.S. Census Bureau, Ninth Census of the United States (1870): Schedule 1-Population: Fredericksville Parish, Albemarle County, Virginia. U.S. Census Bureau, Tenth Census of the United States (1880): Schedule 1-Population: Charlottesville, Albemarle County, Virginia, Enumeration District 14. "Family Record of Charles Poindexter Wertenbaker," PCPW. See Gerald N. Grob, The Deadly Truth, 11619, 142, 19294.
8 "Death, Here, of Noted Surgeon."
9 Williams, United States Public Health Service, 5089. C. P. Wertenbaker, "University of Virginia Alumni in the U.S. Public Health Service and Marine-Hospital Service," University of Virginia Alumni Bulletin, [no date], 197, CPWL, vol. 2. Among those alums Wertenbaker mentioned by name was George M. Magruder, who headed the smallpox control effort at Birmingham.
10 See generally Williams, United States Public Health Service.
11 Margaret Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992).
12 USSGPHMHS 1902, 30. Wertenbaker, "University of Virginia Alumni," 19697. Williams, United States Public Health Service, 492.
13 Williams, United States Public Health Service, 500.
14 "John William Branham," eulogy pamphlet dated Aug. 23, 1893; CPWL, vol. 1. See also "John Frederick Groenvelt," eulogy pamphlet dated Jul. 7, 1891, in ibid., vol. 1. "Dead in the Line of Duty," WP, Aug. 21, 1893, 1. See also "Death of Acting a.s.st. Surg. Stuart Eldridge": "He was a man of fine personal appearance, a cultured physician, and genial gentleman, and the U.S. Marine-Hospital Service has lost an able officer from an important post"; PHR, 16 (Nov. 22, 1901 ), 2709.
15 C. P. Wertenbaker to J. D. Church, New York Life Insurance Co., Aug. 3, 1898, in CPWL, vol. 6.
16 Slaughterhouse Cases, 16 Wall. 36 (1873). Tobey, Public Health Law. See Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); William J. Novak, The People"s Welfare: Law and Regulation in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 191248.
17 Florence Kelley, Notes of Sixty Years: The Autobiography of Florence Kelley, ed. Kathryn Kish Sklar (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1986), 88. See Chicago Department of Health, General and Chronological Summary of Vital Statistics (Chicago, 1919), 1446; "Dr. Burson"s Resignation Accepted," CT, Mar. 1, 1894, 8; R. M. Woodward, "The Cholera Quarantine Conducted by the U.S. Marine-Hospital Service in 1893," paper read before the Cleveland Medical Society, Nov. 23, 1894, reprint from Western Reserve Medical Journal, January 1895. See also Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation"s Work: The Rise of Women"s Political Culture, 18301900 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 26568.
18 C. P. Wertenbaker, "Arrival of Steamship Earnwell at Delaware Breakwater Quarantine with Three Cases of Smallpox," PHR, 9 (Sept. 4, 1896), 826. See Sir Graham S. Wilson, The Hazards of Immunization (London: Athlone Press, 1967).
19 U.S. Census Bureau, Negroes in the United States (Washington, 1904), 276. Works Progress Administration, Federal Writers" Project, North Carolina: A Guide to the Old North State, 249. See also, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 18961920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 10514; Hugh Talmage Lefler and Albert Ray Newsome, North Carolina: The History of a Southern State, 52022.
20 "The Marine Hospital," Wilmington Messenger, Jan. 30, 1898, 9. Photos of the Wilmington home and one photo of Alice and Alicia Wertenbaker out for a ride in the station wagon survive in WFP. See "Girardeau-Wertenbaker," Boston Daily Advertiser, May 2, 1895, 8; "Wertenbaker Rites Slated for Today," WP, Jan. 24, 1955, 20; Society Section, ibid., Sept. 9, 1917, E9.
21 C. P. Wertenbaker to Frank Gilmer, May 22, 1899, CPWL, vol. 6. C. P. Wertenbaker, "Plan of Organization for Suppression of Smallpox in Communities Not Provided with an Organized Board of Health," PHR, 14 (Oct. 22, 1899): 176580.
22 C. P. Wertenbaker, "One Case of Smallpox in Wilmington, N.C.," PHR, 13 (Jan. 14, 1898), 25. "Smallpox in Wilmington," Fayetteville Observer, Jan. 13, 1898, no page.
23 "Smallpox in the City," WM, Jan. 13, 1898, 1. "A Riot Threatened," ibid., Jan. 14, 1898, 4. "Map: Residential Patterns by Race, 1897," in 1898 Wilmington Race Riot Commission, Final Report, May 31, 2006, accessed October 5, 2009.
24 "A Riot Threatened," WM, Jan. 14, 1898, 4. "The Smallpox Scare," ibid., Jan. 15, 1898, 4.
25 "Smallpox in Wilmington." "Burned the House Down," CO, Jan. 15, 1898, 1. "Another Case of Smallpox in Wilmington," BS, Jan. 17, 1898, 7. "Wilmington and the Smallpox," Fayetteville Observer , Jan. 17, 1898, no page. "Compulsory Vaccination," RNO, Jan. 18, 1898, no page. "General News of Interest," Fayetteville Observer, Feb. 8, 1898, no page.
26 "Smallpox in the City." "Compulsory Vaccination," WM, Jan. 25, 1898, 1. "Smallpox Petered Out," ibid., Feb. 1, 1898, 1. "Do You Want to Be Vaccinated?" ibid., Feb. 1, 1898.
27 "Afraid of Vaccination," WM, Jan. 27, 4.
28 "Compulsory Vaccination," WM, Jan. 27, 1901, 1. "The Vaccinators Still at Work," ibid., Jan. 29, 1898, 4.
29 NCBOH 189798, 28. "Items of State News," CO, Jan. 28, 1898, 4.
30 J. W. Babc.o.c.k to Senator B. R. Tillman, Apr. 20, 1898, in CPWL, vol. 1. C. P. Wertenbaker, "Investigation of Smallpox at Charlotte, N.C.," PHR, 13 (Feb. 18, 1898), 14041.
31 Wertenbaker, "Plan of Organization," 1779.
32 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1 (U.S., 1824). State v. W. E. Hay, 126 N.C. 999, 1001. Tobey, Public Health Law. See Michael Les Benedict, "Contagion and the Const.i.tution: Quarantine Agitation from 18591866," JHMAS, 25 (1970), 17793; and Novak, People"s Welfare, 191233. KBOH 189899, 8284.
33 C. P. Wertenbaker, "The Smallpox Outbreak in Bristol, Va.-Tenn.," PHR, 14 (Nov. 3, 1899), 1890. See, e.g., C. P. Wertenbaker, "Report on a Case of Smallpox at Reidsville, N.C.," PHR, 13 (Jul. 15, 1898), 71415; C. P. Wertenbaker, "Smallpox in Georgia," PHR, 14 (Nov. 3, 1899), 189192.
34 KBOH 189899, 43. NCBOH 190304, 15. See, e.g., "Case of Smallpox at Camak," AC, Mar. 26, 1901, 2; "Wright Crazed by Smallpox," ibid., Apr. 4, 1901, 2.
35 NCBOH 189798, 31, 32. "Will Consider Smallpox," AC, Mar. 15, 1900, 4; "Lawmakers Show an Ugly Temper," ibid., May 15, 1901, 3. J. F. Hunter, "Law for Compulsory Vaccination in Mississippi," PHR, 15 (Mar. 2, 1900), 467. See John G. Richardson, "Variation in Date of Enactment of Compulsory School Attendance Laws: An Empirical Inquiry," Sociology of Education, 53 (1980), 157.
36 NCBOH 18991900, 173. "Smallpox in Nashville, Tenn.-Vaccination Compulsory," PHR, 15 (Feb. 16, 1900), 325. Wertenbaker, "Plan of Organization," 1769. On Savannah, see "Kick Against Vaccination," AC, Mar. 29, 1900, 3.
37 C. P. Wertenbaker, "Report on Inspection of Smallpox at Winston, High Point, and Greensboro, N.C.," PHR, 15 (Feb. 16, 1900), 324. "Doctors Roughly Treated," AC, Feb. 15, 1901, 7. W. P. McIntosh, "Smallpox in Girard and Phoenix, Ala., and Columbus, Ga. ," PHR, 16 (Jan. 11, 1901 ), 47.
38 W. C. Hobdy, "Smallpox in Georgia," Public Health Reports, 16 (June 7, 1901), 1253.
39 KBOH 189899, 130. NCBOH 18991900, 21. "Vaccination in Raleigh," CO, Apr. 19, 1899, 8.
40 See, e.g., Michael Dougherty, "Diary of Michael Dougherty, December 1863," Prison Diary, of Michael Dougherty, Late Co. B., 13th Pa., Cavalry: While Confined in Pemberton, Barrett"s, Libby, Andersonville and Other Southern Prisons (Bristol, PA: C. A. Dougherty, 1908), 1617; Oliver Otis Howard to Joseph Hooker, Apr. 19, 1863, in Chronicles from the Nineteenth Century: Family Letters of Blanche Butler and Adelbert Ames . . . , vol. 1, comp. by Blanche Butler Ames (Clinton, MA, privately issued, 1957); Mason Whiting Tyler, "Memoir of Mason Whiting Tyler," in Recollections of the Civil War: With Many Original Diary Entries and Letters Written from the Seat of War (New York: G. P. Putnam"s Sons, 1912), 47. Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants, 27382. Jonathan B. Tucker, Scourge: The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2001), 32.
41 Col. A. W. Shaffer, "Small-pox and Vaccination for Plain People. By One of Them," NCBOH 189798, 176.
42 KBOH 190001, 79. NCBOH 18991900, 13, 21. "The Old, Old Enemy," DMN, Mar. 9, 1900, 6.
43 C. P. Wertenbaker, "Investigation of Smallpox at Columbia and Sumter, S.C.," PHR, 13 (May 13, 1898), 470. KBOH 189697, 80.
44 KBOH 190203, 172. "Precautions Against Smallpox," Columbus Daily Enquirer (Georgia), Mar. 10, 1899. "Vaccination: Ugly Accidents Arising from the Smallpox Preventive," DMN, May 14, 1899, 3.
45 Kinyoun in NCBOH 189798, 114. NCBOH 18991900, 49. Smock in KBOH 189899, 149. W. P. McIntosh, Surgeon, MHS, "Smallpox in Houston County, Ga.," PHR, 15 (Dec. 14, 1900), 3029. KBOH 190001, 18.
46 Washington quoted in Finding a Way Out: An Autobiography, by Robert Russa Moton (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1921), 182.
47 C. P. Wertenbaker, "Smallpox in Georgia," PHR, 14 (Nov. 3, 1899), 1891.
48 G. M. Magruder, "Pa.s.sed a.s.sistant Surgeon Magruder"s Report on Smallpox at Little Rock, Ark.," PHR, 13 (May 6, 1898), 437. D. S. Humphreys, "Smallpox in Greenwood, Miss.," PHR, 15 (Mar. 9, 1900), 516. According to the 1900 Census, African Americans const.i.tuted one third of the population of North Carolina, and less than one quarter of the population of Tennessee. Census Bureau, Negroes in the United States, 109. See, e.g., "Brunswick and the Smallpox," AC, Jan. 7, 1900, 4.
49 C. P. Wertenbaker, "Report on the Smallpox Situation in Danville, Va.," PHR, 14 (Jul. 27, 1899), 1038. KBOH 189899, 135, 79. KBOH 190203, see photo between 36 and 37.
50 W. F. Brunner, "Report of Smallpox in Montgomery County," PHR, 14 (Jul. 21, 1899), 1124.
51 C. P. Wertenbaker to Dr. H. L. Sutherland, Chief Health Officer, Bolivar Co., Mississippi, July 30, 1910, CPWL, vol. 5.
52 S. B. Jones, "Fifty Years of Negro Public Health," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 49 (Sept., 1913): 13846. See Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect: Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987), esp. 1136; W. Michael Byrd and Linda A. Clayton, An American Health Dilemma: Volume 1, idem, An American Health Dilemma: Volume 2: Race, Medicine, and Health Care in the United States 19002000 (New York: Routledge, 2000), esp. 80; James H. Jones, Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, expanded ed. (New York: Free Press, 1993), esp. 1621; Todd L. Savitt, "Black Health on the Plantation: Masters, Slaves, and Physicians," in Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 35168; Steven M. Stowe, Doctoring the South: Southern Physicians and Everyday Medicine in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Werner Troesken, Water, Race, and Disease (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004).
53 W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (1899; reprint ed., New York: Schocken Books, 1967), 14763, esp. 163. U.S. Census Bureau, A Discussion of the Vital Statistics of the Twelfth Census, by John Shaw Billings (Washington, 1904), 1011. Byrd and Clayton, American Health Dilemma, Vol. 2, esp. 80.
54 Du Bois, Philadelphia Negro, 162. See Beardsley, History of Neglect, 1136; Byrd and Clayton, American Health Dilemma, Vol. 1, 355.
55 Jones, "Fifty Years of Negro Public Health," 142. Beardsley, History of Neglect, 35. See Todd L. Savitt, Race and Medicine in Nineteenth- and Early-Twentieth-Century America (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2007).
56 NCBOH 189798, 79, 88. KBOH 189899, 79, 139. J. C. Ballard, "Smallpox in Concordia Parish, Louisiana," PHR, 14 (Nov. 3, 1899), 1893.
57 "Why Smallpox Is Not Checked," AC, Aug. 9, 1897, 2. C. P. Wertenbaker, "Report on the Investigation of Smallpox in North Carolina and Georgia," PHR, 15 (Feb. 2, 1900), 216. C. P. Wertenbaker, "Review of Operations in Advisory Capacity in Suppressing Smallpox in Georgia," PHR, 14 (Nov. 3, 1899), 1844.
58 KBOH 189899, 74.
59 Ibid., 139, 140. See Steven Hahn, A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2003), 41264.
60 "General Vaccination Ordered," WP, Dec. 20, 1900, 1.
61 KBOH 189899, 96.
62 Ibid., 81, 80, 98, 145. NCBOH 189798, 35.
63 "Itching Skin Diseases," WM, advertis.e.m.e.nt, Jan. 26, 1898, 2. John D. Long, "Report on the Inspection of a Gang of Workmen En Route from Clarksburg, W. Va., through Washington to the South," PHR, 61 (Jan. 4, 1901), 12. See Wertenbaker, "Investigation of Smallpox at Columbia and Sumter," 46870.
64 NCBOH 18991900, 172.
65 KBOH 189899, 29. KBOH 189697, 72.
66 C. P. Wertenbaker, "Investigation of Smallpox at Charlotte," 14041. Wertenbaker, "Smallpox Situation in Danville, Va.," 1038. On rumor, see Hahn, Nation Under Our Feet.
67 W. G. Dailey to State Board of Health, Aug. 11, 1898, KBOH 189899, 6364. B. W. Smock in ibid., 104. KBOH 190001, 107. NCBOH 18991900, 158.
68 USSGPHMHS 1898, 59899. See, e.g., "Bullitt County," in KBOH 189899, 6465.
69 Wertenbaker, "Review of Operations . . . Georgia," 1884.
70 Shirley Everton Johnson, "Conquering a Small-Pox Epidemic in Kentucky," in KBOH 189899, 10714, esp. 108.
71 Wertenbaker, "Review of Operations . . . Georgia," 1884.
72 Wertenbaker, "Report on Inspection of Smallpox at Winston, High Point, and Greensboro," 324.
73 Wertenbaker, "Plan of Organization," 1779.
74 See, for example, Wertenbaker, "Report on Inspection of Smallpox at Winston, High Point, and Greensboro," 32324; Wertenbaker, "Smallpox Situation in Danville, Va.," 1038. Wertenbaker may have picked up this technique from North Carolina health officials, who in the fall of 1898 had staged a sort of whistle-stop campaign around the state to "preach the propaganda of vaccination." NCBOH 18991900, 1316.
75 Wertenbaker, "Investigation of Smallpox at Charlotte," 14041; Wertenbaker, "Investigation of Smallpox at Columbia and Sumter," 46870; Wertenbaker, "Measures to Prevent the Spread of Smallpox in Georgia," PHR, 14 (Mar. 3, 1899), 27378. See "Vaccination: Ugly Accidents," DMN, May 14, 1899, 3. See also W. C. Hobdy, "Report on Smallpox in Wilson, N.C.," PHR, 17 (Jan. 24, 1902), 16465.
76 NCBOH 189798, 35.
77 Ibid., 39, 37, 113.
78 NCBOH 18991900, 156. NCBOH 189798, 91.
79 Wertenbaker, "Plan of Organization," 1779.
80 M. J. Rosenau, "Report on the examination of dried lymph and glycerinized vaccine lymph," Apr. 2, 1900, CPWL, vol. 1.
81 Wertenbaker, "Smallpox Outbreak in Bristol," 1891. Henry F. Long, "Smallpox in Iredell County," in NCBOH 189798, 210.
82 Wertenbaker, "Plan of Organization," 1766, 1770, 1780.