Redfield. Mr. Redfield combats the orthodox scientific position that the acquired qualities are not transmitted to offspring; and he most positively states that such characteristics are transmitted to offspring, and are really the causes which have tended toward the evolution and progress of the race. But he insists upon this vital point, namely, that the parent must already have acquired improved quality before he can transmit improvement to the offspring--and that before he can have acquired this improved quality, he must have lived sufficiently long to have experienced the causes which have developed improvement in himself. Consequently, he holds that DELAYED PARENTAGE PRODUCES GREAT MEN.
Mr. Redfield several years ago offered a prize of two hundred dollars to anyone who could show that a single one of the great men of history was the product of a succession of young parents, or was produced by a line of ancestry represented by more than three generations to a century. But no one ever claimed the prize money. According to Mr. Redfield"s doctrine, race improvement is and will be accomplished as the result of effort, physical and mental, upon the part of prospective parents, particularly if the period of effort is sustained over a considerable number of years previous to reproduction.
The following quotations from Mr. Redfield"s writing will give a general idea of his lines of thought and his theories. He says:
"At some time in the past there was a common ancestor for man and the ape. At that time the mental ability of the man was the same as that of the ape, because at that time man and the ape were the same person. From that common ancestor there have been derived two main lines of descent, one leading to man and the other to the ape of today. In the line leading to man, mental ability has increased little by little so that today the mental ability of the man is far above that of the ape. While it may not be literally true for each and every generation between that common ancestor and man of the present time, still we will commit no error if we divide the total increase in mental ability by the number of intervening generations and say that each generation in turn was a little superior to that which produced it. Now it happens that mental ability is something which is inherited--is transmitted from parent to offspring. Take that fact with the fact that there has been a regular (or irregular) increase in mental ability in the generations leading to man, and it will be seen that each generation in succession transmitted to its offspring more than it inherited from its parents. BUT A PARENT CANNOT TRANSMIT SOMETHING WHICH HE DID NOT HAVE. Where and how did those generations get that ability which they transmitted but did not inherit?"
Mr. Redfield in his writings shows that what is true of the human race is true of high-bred domesticated animals, namely, the cow of high milk producing breeds; the fast running and trotting horses; and the highly developed hunting dogs. To each case he applies his question: "Where and how did those generations of animals get that power which they transmitted but did not inherit?" In his investigations he claims to have discovered the secret, namely, that the ancestors, throughout several generations, had each acquired the power which it transmitted, which added to the inherited power raised the general power of the stock. This arose from careful breeding, and directly from the fact that the average age of the parent was much higher in the highly-bred stock than in the "scrub" or ordinary run of stock. In other words, DELAYED PARENTAGE PRODUCED BETTER OFFSPRING.
Mr. Redfield proceeds to argue from these facts as follows: "At one time man and ape reproduced at the same average age, whereas now they reproduce at widely different ages. Going back to the time when man and ape separated, our ancestors survived by physical and mental activity in securing food and escaping from enemies. As time went on man reproduced at later and later average age until now he reproduces at about thirty years from birth of parent to birth of offspring. When time between generations stretched out in the man line more than it did in the ape line, the man acquired MORE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT BEFORE HE REPRODUCED than did the ape, and he did this because he was mentally active more years before reproducing. The successive generations leading to modern man transmitted to offspring more than they inherited from their parents, and the generations which did this are the same generations which acquired, before reproducing, the identical thing which they transmitted in excess of inheriting.
"Coming now to those rare men of whom we have only a few in a century, how were they produced? It should be noted that each one had two parents, four grandparents, and eight great-grandparents. Also that they are certainly improvements over their great-grandparents. If they were not such improvements, then there would be many "rare" cases in a century. In looking into the pedigrees of these great men it is found that they were sons of parents of nearly all ages, but were predominantly sons of elderly parents. While we sometimes find comparatively young parents in the pedigree of a great man, we never find a succession of young parents. Neither do we find an intellectually great man produced by a pedigree extending over three generations. The great man is produced only when the average for three generations is on the elderly side of what is normal. The average age of one thousand fathers, grandfathers, and great-grandfathers in the pedigrees of eminent men was found to be over forty years. Great men rise from ordinary stock only when several generations in succession acquire mental efforts in excess amounts before reproducing."
It is the opinion of the present writer that the theories of Mr.
Redfield are in the main true, and that in the future much valuable information will be obtained along the same lines, which will tend to corroborate his general conclusions. One"s attention needs but to be plainly directed to the matter, and then he will see that it is absurd to think of a creature transmitting to his offspring qualities which neither he or his mate had inherited or acquired. If there were no transmission of acquired qualities there would be no improvement--and in fact, we know that the bulk of inherited qualities were at some time in the history of the race "acquired." And, reasoning along the same line, we may see that the young parents who have not had as yet an opportunity to acquire mental power cannot expect to transmit it to their offspring--all that they can do is to transmit the inherited stock qualities plus the small acquired power which they have gained in their limited experience. And, finally, it is seen that offspring produced at a riper age of parenthood, continued over several generations, tend toward unusual ability and powers. Consequently, the people or nation with a higher average age of parenthood may logically expect to attain greater mental powers than the peoples lacking that quality. And what is true of a people or nation is of course true of a particular family.
The subject touched upon in this part of our book is one of the greatest interest to careful students of Eugenics; and is one which calls for careful and unprejudiced consideration from all persons having the interest of the race at heart.
LESSON IX
THE DETERMINATION OF s.e.x
The term "The Determination of s.e.x" is employed in two general senses in scientific circles.
The first usage is that of the biologist, and it includes within its scope merely the discovery and understanding of the CAUSES which determine whether the embryo shall develop into a male or into a female.
In the discussion of the subject from this standpoint there is but little, if any, attention given to the question of whether the s.e.x of the unborn child may be determined by methods under the control of man.
The biologist simply studies the causes which seem to lead to the production of an individual of one or the other s.e.x, without regard to whether these causes, when discovered, may or may not be amendable to human control.
An authority, speaking of this standpoint concerning the question referred to, says: "We may discover the causes of storms or earthquakes, and when our knowledge of them is sufficiently advanced we may be able to predict them as successfully as astronomers predict eclipses, but there is little hope that we shall ever be able to control them. So it may be with s.e.x; a complete understanding of the causes which determine it may not necessarily give us the power of producing one or the other s.e.x at will, or even of predicting the s.e.x in any given case. Whether we shall ever be able to influence the causes of s.e.x-determination cannot as yet be foretold; at present, biologists are engaged in the less practical, but immensely interesting, problem, of discovering what those causes are."
The second usage of the term, includes and embraces the idea of the voluntary determination or control of the s.e.x of the future child, by means of certain methods or certain systems of treatment, etc. Of recent years, science has been devoting considerable attention to the question of whether or not man may not be able to produce any particular s.e.x at will, by means of certain systems or methods of procedure. Many theories have been evolved, and many plans and methods have been advocated, often with the expenditure of much energy and enthusiasm on the part of the promulgators and their adherents.
In this lesson there will be briefly presented to you the general consensus of modern thought on the subject, with a general outline of the favorite methods and systems advocated by the several schools of thought concerned in the investigation.
Professor Doncaster, the well-known authority on the subject, says: "But little progress has been made in the direction of predicting the s.e.x of any child, and, if possible, even less in artificially influencing the determination of its s.e.x. When the general principles arrived at are borne in mind, it must be confessed that the prospects of our ever attaining this power of control or even of prediction are not very hopeful, but the possibility of it cannot be yet regarded as entirely excluded. The general conclusions arrived at are that s.e.x is determined by a physiological condition of the embryonic cells, that this condition is induced, at least in the absence of disturbing causes, by the presence of a particular s.e.x-chromosome. [A "chromosome" is a portion of the chromatin, or substance characteristic of the nucleus of the cell, this nucleus seemingly controlling the life-processes of the cell.] But there is evidence, which for the present at least cannot be neglected, that certain extraneous conditions acting on the egg or early embryo may perhaps be able to counteract the effect of s.e.x chromosome.
"Quite generally, then, there are two conceivable methods by which the s.e.x might be artificially influenced in any particular case; firstly, if means could be found of ensuring that any particular fertilized ovum received the required chromosomes; and, secondly, by the discovery of methods which always effect the ovum or embryo in such a way as to produce the desired s.e.x. Many suggestions for applying both methods have been made, some of which have attained considerable notoriety, but hitherto none of them has stood the test of practical experience. In the case of the higher animals, especially of the mammals, in which the embryo develops in the maternal uterus until long after the s.e.x is irrevocably decided, it is obviously difficult to apply methods which might influence the s.e.x after fertilization, even if it were certainly known that such methods were ever really effective.
"Apart from the few experiments like those of Hertwig on rearing tadpoles at different temperatures, there have been a very few cases in which there is even a suggestion that the s.e.x of the fertilized egg can be modified by environment, and the belief that this is possible has been entirely abandoned by many of the leading investigators of the subject. It is probable, therefore, that if it will ever be possible to predict or determine artificially the s.e.x of a particular child, the means will have to be sought in some method of influencing the output of germ-cells in such a way that one kind is produced rather than the other. It is in this way that Heape and others interpret the results of their investigations; they find that certain conditions affect the s.e.x-ratio of cells, and they explain the result by a.s.suming that UNDER SOME CIRc.u.mSTANCES MALE-DETERMINING OVA ARE PRODUCED IN EXCESS, AND UNDER OTHER CIRc.u.mSTANCES, FEMALE-DETERMINING."
Professor Rumley Dawson holds to the opinion that the male-determining and female-determining ova are discharged alternately from the ovaries.
In woman one ovum is usually discharged each month, and it is maintained that on one month the ovum is male-determining, and in the next, female-determining. It is obvious that exceptions must occur, for boy and girl twins are quite common, but if the cases which support the hypothesis are taken by themselves, and the exceptions explained away, it is possible to make out a strong case in favor of this theory. Some authorities hold that the right ovary produces male-determining ova, and the left ovary female-determining, and that the two ovaries discharge an ovum alternately, but an impartial examination of the evidence for this belief shows that it rests on very slender foundations. Experiments on the lower animals have shown that after the complete removal of one ovary the female may produce young of both s.e.xes. Women, also, have produced children of a particular s.e.x after the corresponding ovary has been removed, and it is hardly possible to believe that the removal in all these cases was incomplete. On the whole it must be concluded that the theory is insufficiently supported by the evidence.
Another widely promulgated and vigorously supported theory is that which holds that the s.e.x of the future child may be determined by specific nutrition of the mother before conception, and in some cases after conception. Schenk"s theory, advanced about 1900, attracted much attention at the time. He based his method on the observation that a number of women whose children were all girls all excreted sugar in their urine, such as happens in the case of persons affected with diabetes. From this he suspected that the physiological condition which leads to the excretion of sugar was inimical to the development of male-determining ova, and that males could be produced by its prevention. He therefore recommended that those who desire a male child should undergo treatment similar to that prescribed for diabetes for two or three months before conception, and held that a boy would be produced by these methods. Although this method has had considerable vogue, it cannot be held to have been established on a scientific basis.
Doncaster says "The general conclusion with regard to man must therefore be that if s.e.x is determined solely by the spermatozoon there is no hope either of influencing or predicting it in special cases. On the other hand, there is considerable evidence that the ovum has some share in the effect, and if this is so, before any practical results are reached it will be necessary to discover which of two conceivable causes of s.e.x-determination is the true one. It is possible that there are two kinds of ova, as well as two kinds of spermatozoa, and that there is a selective fertilization of such a kind that one kind of spermatozoon only fertilizes one kind of ovum, the second kind of spermatozoon the second kind of ovum. If this should prove to be the case, it is possible that means might be found of influencing or predicting that kind of ovum which is discharged under any set of conditions. Secondly, it is possible that the ova are potentially all alike, but that their physiological condition may under some circ.u.mstances be so altered that the s.e.x is determined independently of the spermatozoon. * * * It is hardly possible to avoid the conclusion that the s.e.x of the offspring may be influenced, at least under certain circ.u.mstances, by the mother.
The search for means of influencing the s.e.x of the offspring through the mother is not of necessity doomed to failure. No results of a really positive kind have been obtained hitherto, and some of the facts point so clearly to s.e.x-determination by the male germ-cell alone in man and other animals that many investigators have concluded that the quest is hopeless; but until an adequate explanation has been given of certain phenomena discovered in the investigation of the subject, it seems more reasonable to maintain an open mind, and to regard the control of s.e.x in man as an achievement not entirely impossible of realization."
Another writer on the subject has said: "Every individual among the higher animals, whether male or female, begins as an impregnated ovum in the mother"s body. Any such ovum contains elements of const.i.tution from both of its parents. In the earliest existence of this impregnated ovum, there is a season of s.e.xual indifference, or indecision, in which the embryo is both male and female, having the characteristic rudiments of each s.e.x, only indifferently manifested. In this stage, the embryo is susceptible of being influenced by external conditions to develop more strongly in the one or the other direction and thus become distinctly and permanently male or female. It is evident that this is the season in the development of the individual in which influencing conditions and causes must operate in deciding its s.e.x, although it is possible in some of the lower animals to alter the tendency of s.e.x in the embryo from one s.e.x to the other, even after it has been quite definitely determined. It is well established, in fact, that differences do not come from a difference in the ova themselves; that is, there is not one kind of ova from the female which becomes female, while other ova become male, for it is possible to alter the tendency toward the one s.e.x or the other after the ovum has been fertilized and the embryo has begun its career of development. This possible change in s.e.x tendency in the embryo also proves that s.e.x is not decided by a difference in the spermatozoa; that is some of the sperm cells from the father are not male, while others are female, in their const.i.tution.
"It is incorrect to suppose, as has been held by some theorists, that one t.e.s.t.i.c.l.e give rise to male spermatozoa and the other to female spermatozoa, for both male and female offspring have been produced from the same male parent after one t.e.s.t.i.c.l.e or the other has been removed.
The same is true in cases in which either ovary has been removed from the mother; that is, male and female offspring are produced from mothers in whom either ovary has been removed. In like manner, the s.e.x of offspring is shown not to be materially affected by the comparative vigor of the parents; thus, a stronger father than mother does not necessarily produce one s.e.x to the exclusion of the other. These negative decisions are important because they simplify the solution of the problem of s.e.x-determination, by excluding, more or less fully, various causes which have been supposed to operate quite forcibly in deciding the s.e.x of offspring. Some of the more positive agencies that enter into the determination of s.e.x are found (1) in the influence of nutrition upon the embryo during its indifferent stage of s.e.xual development, and (2) in the const.i.tution and general condition of the mother before and during the early stages of pregnancy. These two factors appear to enter more fully than any others in the decision of the s.e.x in offspring, and deserve the greatest consideration. The influence of food in supplying the embryo with nourishment for its development is, perhaps, the most potent of these determining causes."
Investigators along the line of theory indicated in the above last quotation, i. e., the theory of s.e.x determination by means of nourishment of the mother and embryo, have presented a volume of reports which demand respectful consideration. The general report may be said to be the discovery that ABUNDANT NOURISHMENT DURING THE PERIOD OF s.e.xUAL NEUTRALITY TENDS TO PRODUCE FEMALES; WHILE LACK OF ABUNDANT NUTRITION DURING SUCH PERIOD TENDS TO PRODUCE MALES.
These experiments, of course, have been chiefly performed upon the lower animals. The frog has been a favorite subject of such experiments--the tadpole stage being the one selected, because in that stage there exists a lack of s.e.x, the stage being one of s.e.x neutrality. Professor Yung"s celebrated experiments will ill.u.s.trate this cla.s.s of experiments. Here were chosen 300 tadpoles, which when left to themselves manifested a ratio of 57 prospective females to 43 prospective males. These were divided into three cla.s.ses of 100 tadpoles each. Each cla.s.s was then fed upon one of several kinds of nutritious diet in order to ascertain the change in s.e.x-tendency due to such food. The first set, with an original ratio of femaleness of 54 to 46, were fed abundantly on beef, and the ratio of femaleness was changed to 78 to 22. The second cla.s.s, with a ratio of femaleness of 61 to 39, were fed on fish (specially nourishing to frogs), and the ratio changed to 81 to 19. The third cla.s.s, with a ratio of 56 to 44, were fed upon a still more nutritious diet (i. e., that of frogs" flesh), and the ratio was raised to 92 to 8. In short, the experiments showed that the increase of nourishment in diet changed every two out of three male-tendency tadpoles into females. The experiment was held to prove that a rich diet, affording nourishment, during the period of s.e.xual neutrality in the embryo, tended to develop femaleness.
The advocates of this theory also point to the instance of the bees.
With the bees, the larva of ordinary worker-bees are fed ordinary food, and do not develop s.e.x; while the larva which is intended to produce the queen-bee is fed specially nutritious "royal food," and consequently develops larger size and full female s.e.x powers. If the queen is killed, or dies, the hive of bees proceeds to produce a new queen by means of feeding a selected larva with the "royal food" and thus developing full femaleness in it. It is said by some authorities that in cases in which some other of the larva accidently receive, through mistake, crumbs of the "royal food," they, too, grow to an extraordinary size, and develop fertility. This fact is held by the advocates of the nutrition theory to go toward establishing the fact that abundant nourishment of the embryo, during the neutral stage, tends to produce femaleness in it. They also claim that caterpillars which are very poorly nourished before entering into the chrysalis stage usually develop into male b.u.t.terflies, while those highly nourished in the said stage tend to become females.
Experiments on sheep have shown that when the ewes are particularly well nourished the offspring will show a large proportion of females.
A writer, favoring the theory in question, says: "In general, it is reasonable to infer that the higher s.e.xual organization which const.i.tutes the female is to be attained in the greatest number of cases by embryos which have superior vital conditions during the formative period. Among human beings, some facts of general observation become significant in the light of the foregoing inferences. After epidemics, after wars, after seasons of privation and distress, the tendency is toward a majority of male births. On the other hand, abundant crops, low prices, peace, contentment and prosperity tend to increase the number of females born. Mothers in prosperous families usually have more girls; mothers in families of distress have more boys. Large, well-fed, fully developed, healthy women, who are of contented and pa.s.sive disposition, generally become mothers of families abounding in girls; while mothers who are small or spare of flesh, who are poorly fed, restless, unhappy, overworked, exhausted by frequent childbearing, or who are reduced by other causes which waste their vital energies, usually give birth to a greater number of boys. As a general proposition, the facts and inferences tend to establish the truth of the doctrine with women, that, the more favorable the vital conditions of the mother during the period in which the s.e.x of her offspring is being determined, the greater the ratio of females she will bear; the less favorable her vital conditions at such times, the greater will be her tendency to bear males. That many apparent exceptions occur does not disprove the general tendency here maintained. Moreover, it is impossible to know in all cases what were the conditions of the mother"s organism at the time in which her child was in its delicate balance between predominant femaleness and maleness; else many cases which seemingly disprove the proposition would be found to be forcible ill.u.s.trations of its truth. Still further, it is probable that other causes besides those here mentioned act with greater or less effect in determining the s.e.x of offspring."
Based upon this general theory of the relation of nutrition to s.e.x-determination, many methods and systems have been devised by as many authorities, and have been followed and promulgated by as many schools.
Without going into the almost endless detail which would be necessitated by a synopsis of these various methods and systems, it may be said that they all consist of plans having for their object the decrease of nutrition of the woman in cases in which male children are desired, and the increase of nutrition in cases in which female children are sought for. This increase or decrease in nutrition is enforced for a reasonable period before the time selected for the conception of the child, and also for a reasonable period after the time of conception. The decrease in nutrition does not consist of "starvation," but rather of a "training diet" similar to that followed by athletics, and from which dietary all rich foods, sweets, etc., are absent. In fact, the average dietary advocated by the "Eat and Grow Thin" writers would seem to be almost identical with that of the "male offspring" theorists.
Many persons who have followed the methods and systems based on the nutrition theory above mentioned claim to have been more or less successful in the production of the particular s.e.x desired, but many exceptions to the rule are noted, and some writers on the subject are disposed to regard the reported successes as mere coincidences, and claim that the failures are seldom reported while the successes are widely heralded. The present writer presents the claims of this school to the attention of his readers, but without personally positively endorsing the idea. He is of the opinion that the data obtainable is not as yet sufficient to justify the strong claims made for the theory in some quarters; but, at the same time, he does not hesitate to say that there are many points of interest brought out in the presentation of the theory, and that many thoughtful persons seem to accept the same as reasonably well established and logical.
Another theory which has been heard of frequently of late years is that in which it is held that the ova are expelled in alternating s.e.x, each month. Thus, if a male ovum is expelled in January, the February ovum will be a female one, according to this theory. Under this theory if the date of conception of a child be ascertained, and the s.e.x of the child noted at its birth, it is a simple matter to count forward from the menstrual period following which the child was conceived, and thus determine whether the ovum of any succeeding period is male or female.
It should be noted, however, that the periods are regulated by the lunar months, and not the calendar months. The fact that twins of different s.e.xes are sometimes born would seem to disturb this theory--but not more than any other theory of s.e.x-determination voluntarily produced, for that matter. The several schools explain this apparent discrepancy by the familiar saying that "exceptions prove the rule."
Another theory of s.e.x-determination is that which holds that when conception occurs within a few days after the last day of menstruation, the child will be a girl; and that when conception occurs at a later period, the child will be a boy. Methods and systems based upon this theory are also reported as being reasonably successful in producing satisfactory results. But, inasmuch as there appears to be a great difference in individual women in this respect (even according to the claims of this school of s.e.x-determination), it would seem that it would be difficult to proceed with certainty in the matter in most cases. One of the writers advocating this method, says: "Conception within five days after the end of the menstrual period is almost certain to produce a girl child; within five days to ten days, it may be either a boy or a girl; from ten to fifteen days, it is almost sure to be a boy; from eighteen to twenty-five days is the period of probable sterility, in which conception is extremely unlikely to occur."
In conclusion, it may be said that Nature undoubtedly has certain rules of s.e.x-determination which govern in these cases; and that it is possible if not indeed probable that these rules may some day be discovered by man, and turned to account; but that it is very doubtful whether the secret has as yet been solved by the investigators. The writer may be pardoned for suggesting that, in his opinion, if the discovery is ever made it will likely be found to be very simple--so simple that we have probably overlooked it because it was in too plain sight to attract our attention. Nature"s methods are usually very simple, when once discovered. She hides her processes from man by making them simple, it would seem.
LESSON X
WHAT BIRTH CONTROL IS, AND IS NOT
The student of the progress of human affairs, or even the average person whose knowledge of the doings of mankind is derived from a hasty and casual reading of the daily newspapers and the popular magazines, cannot plead ignorance of the growing interest in the general subject which is embraced within the content of the term "Birth Control."
But while the general meaning of the term is at least vaguely grasped by the average member of the human crowd--the individual to whom we refer as "the man on the street"--we find a startling condition of mental confusion and often positive misconception concerning the essence and spirit of the general idea expressed by the term in question.
While the fact is a reflection upon the average intelligence of the general public, it must be admitted that to the average person, or "the man on the street," Birth Control means simply the teaching and practice of certain methods whereby men and women may indulge their s.e.xual appet.i.tes, in or out of marriage, without incurring the liability or risk of conception and child-bearing. The average person does not stop to consider that such teachings and practices do not const.i.tute "Birth Control" at all, but are, rather, merely the theory and practice of Birth Prevention, desirable only to those who seek s.e.xual indulgences without being called upon to shoulder the responsibilities attached by Nature to the physical s.e.xual union of men and women.
The term "CONTROL" does not mean "prohibition," or "prevention"; but, on the contrary, means "governing, regulating, or managing influence."
Birth Control, in the true meaning of the term, does not mean the prevention or prohibition of the birth of children, but rather the encouragement of the birth of children under the best possible conditions and the discouragement of the birth of children under improper or unfavorable conditions.
Birth Control, in the true meaning of the term, does not mean theories and practices which would tend to reduce the population of the civilized countries of the world, but rather theories and practice which would inevitably result in the production of an adequate ratio of increase in the population of such countries, not only by reason of a normal birth-rate, but also by reason of a diminishing death-rate among infants--by the production of healthier children, accompanied by the raising of the standard of the average child born in such countries.
Birth Control, in the true meaning of the term, therefore, is seen to consist not of the PROHIBITION or PREVENTION of human offspring, but rather of the GOVERNING, REGULATING, AND MANAGING of the production of human offspring, under the inspiration of the highest ideals and under the direction of the highest reason, for the purpose of the advancement and welfare of the race and that of the individuals composing the race.