Sensations.--Besides sight, sounds have sometimes been used for the purpose of inducing hypnotism. The ticks of a watch, for instance, placed at a little distance and listened to very intently, have been known to a.s.sist in securing the hypnotic state. Sometimes the sound of a gong, or an imitation of a cathedral chime, have been used in the same way. Soft music has also been used by operators with decided advantage. It is necessary that the sounds should be of a kind that do not disturb, but only attract attention to one sensation, and then, as concentration on this is secured, the hypnotic condition results.
Practically any other sensation may be used in the same way. Touch is often employed. Mesmer stroked his patients gently, and others have used the same process with advantage. Some of the French workers in hypnotism have claimed that there were special portions of the body the stroking of which was likely to produce this favorable effect.
They have called these regions zones hypnogenes--areas that give rise to hypnotic conditions. Strokings of the forehead, of the cheeks, of the hands, are favorite locations for these auxiliary touches. In this, as with regard to sound, the main thing is to concentrate attention on some one sensation without producing disturbing thoughts.
Stroking.--Stroking seems to affect many people and to easily induce a sort of hypnoidal condition. It is done very naturally to a child when one wants to console or encourage or admonish slightly but kindly. In older people it is a familiar gesture among those who think much of one another, and represents a very natural tendency. Even in the midst of physical discomfort its effect is quite soothing, and it is evident that something resembling hypnotism is at work. Evidently, what really happens is a concentration of attention on the sensation thus produced, which concentration prevents distracting thoughts from making themselves felt and permits the words of the one who does the stroking to produce a deeper effect on the mind than would ordinarily be possible. This seems to be nature"s method of making suggestion more effective. It has been adopted, quite spontaneously, by many of the pioneers in hypnotism as the result of their observations upon its efficacy. Lloyd Tuckey calls attention to an ill.u.s.tration of this practice, which makes clear its effectiveness and at the same time shows how naturally it suggests itself as a mode of using mental influence. He says:
Among the medical men who have come to watch some of my cases was a gentleman who seemed much struck at seeing the method I adopted with a rather refractory subject. I held his hand and stroked his forehead while at the same time suggesting the symptoms of sleep.
The gentleman told me afterward the reason why he was so interested.
It appears that he had a few months previously been in attendance on a very severe and protracted case of delirium tremens. The patient could get no sleep, and the doctor was afraid of death from exhaustion. On the third evening he resolved to make a strong effort to produce sleep, and, if necessary, to sit up all night with the patient. He told the man that he would not leave him until he slept, and sitting down by the bedside, he took his hand in one of his own, and with the other gently stroked the forehead. At the same time he talked quietly and rea.s.suringly to him. In less than half an hour he was rewarded by seeing the restlessness entirely cease and the man drop off into a quiet sleep. That sleep, the doctor told me, lasted fourteen hours, and the patient awoke out of it weak, but cured.
Manipulation about the head has in many persons a most soporific effect, and several persons have told me that they always become drowsy under their barber"s hands.
{157}
Drugs.--A number of drugs and related substances have been used as aids to hypnosis, but in nearly all of these cases it is doubtful whether it is true hypnotism that results and whether the suggestions in these states have much therapeutic value. One of the drugs most frequently administered by hypnotists is _cannabis indica_, which has long been used in the East for a similar purpose. After this, chloroform is most popular. Schrenck-Notzing even ventured to employ alcohol as an aid in hypnosis, and claims that he has succeeded at times in making intoxication pa.s.s into the true hypnotic condition.
Bernheim and many others of the French school have used chloral and morphine. These substances are, however, liable to great abuse.
Whenever they have to be employed it means that the patient is but little susceptible to hypnotic influence. These aids are employed only because hypnotists do not want to confess that a very considerable portion of humanity is not directly susceptible to the hypnotic influence.
Serious harm may be done by the employment of these drugs. A physician, who hoped that he would be able to overcome a drug addiction that had been the bane of his existence for a long while, went to a well-known hypnotist physician with the idea that perhaps the miracle of hypnotism would be worked in his case. He was one of these flighty mortals whom it is extremely difficult to have fix their minds upon any one idea for a definite time. As it was impossible to bring him into anything like a hypnotic condition by ordinary means, a large dose of chloral was administered. He already had an idea that his heart had been affected by his previous drug-taking habit, but the chloral was administered to him before he realized what it was. When he came out of the sleep it induced, he was in an agony of solicitude and anxiety lest his heart should have been further hurt by the chloral. He went back for no more doses of that kind of hypnotism.
The use of drugs seems to be a confession of failure to secure true hypnotism, so that it is doubtful whether their employment is justified. Suggestions received while in the more or less comatose state induced by drugs, instead of having a strengthening effect on the patient"s will, rather tend to produce the idea of the impossibility of effectively using his own will, or even exercising his will when helped, as he supposes, by the will of the operator. The real value of hypnotism consists in the concentration of mind upon a particular idea without any distractions, which enables the subject to make firm resolutions and then to have his mind help his body as much as possible by directing his energy to the accomplishment of one end.
When drugs are employed, they have a diffusive rather than a concentrating influence, so that the real purpose of hypnotism is entirely missed.
PRACTICE OF HYPNOTISM
In the ordinary practice of hypnotism now, the patient is placed sitting on a comfortable chair and the operator on one side facing prepares the mind of the subject by proper a.s.surances. The patient must be brought into a thoroughly a.s.sured and comfortable state of mind and must be quite ready to submit to hypnotism. Then in most people, if the finger is held rather close to the patient and well above the line of sight, requiring special effort {158} on the part of the superior recti muscles as well as of the power of convergence, a tired feeling will come over the subject with a tendency of the lids to droop. When this happens the subject is asked to allow the lids to drop and to quietly concentrate the attention on the idea of sleep so as to permit the drowsy feeling gradually to increase. On a first seance this may take ten minutes, subsequently much less time will be needed, and, as a rule, in five minutes the subject is quite predisposed to sleep. In more difficult cases a much longer time may be needed, and repeated efforts may have to be made. Great patience is required. The operator soon learns to adjust himself to certain peculiarities of individuals in predisposing them to the hypnotic condition.
Hypnotism Simple, Natural, Not Mysterious.--The most important thing to know about hypnotism is the fact that any one who wishes can hypnotize. There may be need for favoring circ.u.mstances, but there is no need for any special faculty in the operator. If he has confidence in himself so as to take up the question of hypnotizing seriously, if the subjects are reasonably susceptible and if they are persuaded that they may be hypnotized, or even if they are not, so long as they take the operator seriously a hypnotic state will result. Nothing is more surprising to the operator himself, the first time he succeeds, than his success. This at once gives him renewed confidence, and future hypnosis becomes a comparatively simple matter. To have this idea widely diffused would do much good, since it would at once strip the charlatans, who abuse hypnotism, of most of the mystery that surrounds them. The general diffusion of such knowledge would also do good in another way. It would expose the supposed wonderful power that some people are presumed to possess. Hypnotism works no wonders; it is a mere natural manifestation not unlike sleep, and probably not a whit more mysterious.
Stages.--A number of divisions of the hypnotic state have been suggested, but probably the simple division into three stages is the best for ordinary teaching purposes, and helps to the understanding both of the conditions themselves and of many things that are written about hypnotism.
The first stage consists of a subdued, dreamy condition, in which the patient is not asleep and yet not thoroughly awake to all that is going on around him. He has his mind so concentrated on certain thoughts that he is preoccupied, and suggestions are much more efficient than under ordinary circ.u.mstances. This is really only a state of intense attention to the suggestions that are being made, with the banishment of all distracting thoughts. It is rather difficult for any one to keep from being distracted, and whenever this is accomplished, the ideas that then enter the mind penetrate more deeply and, above all, seem to affect the will more forcibly than when they are merely superficially considered. This first stage of hypnotism would not be considered hypnotic by most people who a.s.sociate the idea of sleep with hypnotism.
In recent years it has been found that most of the good that is accomplished, especially for nervous people, by hypnotic suggestion, can be attained almost, if not quite as well, in this first stage, and without the hypnotic trance. The first stage is much less liable to the dangers of hypnotism in many ways, and it represents one of the most interesting phases of psychotherapy.
{159}
The second stage of hypnotism is the hypnotic sleep. The patient loses consciousness of his surroundings, though his senses are still open to suggestion from the operator. Practically all that happens in the room apart from what is brought to the subject through the operator"s direction remains unnoticed. If the sleep is very deep, even the suggestions of the operator do not penetrate after a time, so it may be quite difficult to awaken the subject. It may be even some hours before the person hypnotized will come out of the lethargy which has been induced in these cases. Under these circ.u.mstances, this second stage partakes somewhat of the nature of the deeper trance condition that characterizes the third stage.
The third stage of hypnotism consists of a profound trance-like condition in which there is catalepsy--that is, firm contracture of muscles all over the body--and as the extensors are stronger than the flexors, this contracture takes place in the extended position. The cataleptic condition is really a nervous spasmodic seizure rather than a true stage of hypnotism. It is probably always harmful for the patient to have it induced. Its occurrence as one manifestation of hysteria, apart from hypnotism, shows its real character. It is with this stage of hypnotism that professional hypnotists, who give exhibitions, make their demonstrations--that is, of course, when their demonstrations are really hypnotic and are not merely, as is often the case, performances by actors trained for the purpose. Catalepsy is entirely pathological; experiment with it then is eminently undesirable, and certainly should not be undertaken except under the most careful precautions and by a physician. One of its dangers was very clearly pointed out by the death of a young man, who in a cataleptic condition was subjected to certain strains upon his thorax which brought about the rupture of an aortic aneurism. Catalepsy never permits of suggestion in such a way as to be helpful to the patient.
It always leads to further functional deterioration of the nervous system, and yet it has unfortunately come to mean for many people the most essential characteristic of hypnotism. Its production is supposed to represent the acme of skill in the hypnotist. Nothing could possibly be less true nor be more likely to do harm.
Susceptibility.--As to the number of people who are susceptible to hypnotism, there are great differences of opinion. Liebault declared that practically every one is susceptible in the hands of a patient operator. In a carefully made series of cases his failures were less than three per cent. Van Rentergehem and Van Eeden, in a series of over 1,000 persons, failed only with fifty-eight, or little more than five per cent. Schrenk-Notzing"s statistics, collected from many countries, seem to show that only about six per cent. were uninfluenced. Bernheim, at Nancy, was not nearly so successful as Liebault, his master, and his failures amounted to twenty-five per cent. at the beginning and at least twenty per cent. later. I remember that when I was at the Saltpetriere fifteen years ago, they were inclined to discount the enthusiasm of the Nancy school with regard to the value and significance of hypnotism. They insisted that probably not more than one out of two of the persons presenting themselves at a nervous clinic could be hypnotized to the extent that is ordinarily a.s.sociated with the word--could be brought beyond the drowsy stage.
There are other workers in the subject who have insisted that not more than one out of three ordinary individuals can be so {160} deeply hypnotized as to exhibit the ordinary symptoms. These symptoms consist of complete neglect of surroundings and absolute absorption in the suggestions of the operator.
Some people can be hypnotized to the extent of being thrown into sleep and yet walk and talk under the absolute control of the operator.
These are so-called somnambules, the cla.s.s of persons who are exhibited by professional hypnotizers who want to attract popular attention, and, indeed, the cla.s.s usually exhibited by physicians before medical societies, and even by professors before their cla.s.ses.
This extreme susceptibility is, however, quite rare. Even the most ardent advocates of hypnotism and of the susceptibility of humanity to it do not claim that more than one in ten of average individuals can be influenced to this degree. There are milder degrees of hypnotism than this, until we reach a state in which all the patients feel is a certain dreamy sense of well-being and a heaviness of the eyes, with a readiness to respond to suggestions. Most people who think of the somnambulistic stage as representing hypnotism would not consider these latter to have been at all subjected to the hypnotic state.
_Repeated Efforts_.--As to this question of susceptibility, much depends on how often the operator has tried to hypnotize the particular subject, for susceptibility develops with repeated trials, not only where there is a manifest impression at first, but also where there is not. It is not uncommon to find that a patient who cannot be brought at all under the influence of hypnotism in the first or second or third trial, will, at the fifth or sixth trial, yield to the suggestion to go into a hypnotic sleep. A dozen unsuccessful efforts may be followed by the development of a very satisfactory hypnosis.
Those who have practiced hypnotism much tell of having tried a score or even two score of times before finally bringing on a hypnotic condition. Dr. J. Milne Bramwell, one of the English authorities on hypnotism, tells the story [Footnote 20] of having tried sixty or more times to hypnotize patients before finally succeeding. It is this persistence that enables successful hypnotic operators to accomplish results where less confident physicians fail. It is also the frequency of trial that makes all the difference in the statistics as to the susceptibility of patients to hypnotism in the hands of different individuals. There must be the confidence of the patient in the physician"s power to hypnotize, but, above all, there must be the physician"s own confidence in his power to bring on the hypnotic sleep so that he tries and tries again, even to seventy times.
[Footnote 20: "Hypnotism. Its History, Practice and Theory," by J. M.
Bramwell, 2nd edn. London, The De la More Press, 1906.]
ANIMAL HYPNOTISM
The hypnotization of animals shows that only a very low grade intelligence is needed for the production of this state. The famous experiment of Father Kircher with the hen, which any one may repeat at any time, is a good ill.u.s.tration. The fascination exerted upon birds by snakes is another familiar example. The bird is paralyzed with terror at the sight of the snake, and so cannot escape from its enemy, fairly glueing its eyes on the terrifying object, and thus loses power to control its wings. Stories of snake {161} fascination are usually told as if the eye of the snake attracted the bird, who thereupon proceeded to approach the snake. These are, however, doubtful stories.
The paralysis of motion seems to be the main effect. The rabbit is affected in nearly the same way. There is a tremor of horror in antic.i.p.ation, and then the animal stands perfectly quiet, though ordinarily he would be quite able to escape, while its enemy approaches. The underlying mechanism is evidently a concentration of attention, which completely precludes the possibility of the exertion of any spontaneous energy except that involved in the one act of watching the awful object.
DANGERS OF HYPNOTISM
There are many and various opinions of the dangers of hypnotism. Some of those who have given it a fair trial have insisted on its dangers.
Some of those who have had very large experience have declared emphatically that there is no danger at all. Occasionally it has seemed that such a declaration must be considered as having been dictated by such intensity of interest as sometimes leads men to overlook the darker side of things with which they are much occupied.
Certain moral aspects of hypnotism are at least dubious, and, it must be admitted, present opportunities for abuse. There are certain dangers connected with its effect upon nervous patients, and especially with its influence upon character, that have become more and more clear in recent years. Dr. John K. Mitch.e.l.l, in his "Self Help for Nervous Women," a series of familiar talks on economy in nervous expenditure, [Footnote 21] has dwelt on certain of these dangers of hypnotism for nervous patients in a pa.s.sage that deserves to be recalled. As a representative of a school of thought that is worthy of special regard from American physicians his expressions must carry weight:
[Footnote 21: Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1909.]
The greatest danger of all is the use of hypnotism in any form or degree, a two-edged sword, capable indeed of usefulness, but more capable of harm. After years of study, beginning with too easy an approval of it, hypnotism, whether called by that name or by the unsuitable one of suggestion, has been laid aside by the medical profession as a means too dangerous for ordinary use, involving great risk of deterioration of character in the subject if often repeated, and putting a terribly tempting tool in the hands of the user, fascinating in the ease with which it can produce superficial and temporary good results and equally capable of being used for harmful ones.
A susceptible person, once hypnotized, is more and more easily thrown into the hypnotic state until even the slightest hint suffices to bring about the condition. It is not necessary for the hypnotization to go so far as deep sleep; this more advanced stage is indeed seldom required, and to say that persons are not hypnotized because they are not put into a sleep or a trance shows ignorance of the subject.
I am not a.s.serting that very slight degrees of the hypnotic condition are as dangerous as the deeper, but I do say that all degrees of it are dangerous to the integrity and healthy action of the subject"s nervous system. The danger of harm increases with every repet.i.tion of the hypnotization.
In suggestible, that is, over-susceptible, individuals, who are almost universally neurotic persons, to fix the eyes on a small point, especially a bright one, sometimes even to fix the mind on the one idea of going into the hypnotic state (mild or deep), is enough without further intervention from any one to put them into that state.
{162}
In an article on the "Danger and Uses of Hypnotism" Prof. Forel, of Zurich, twenty years ago, while frankly admitting that hypnotism is by no means a panacea for all nervous affections and unfortunate habits, found it to be an extremely valuable help in the treatment of many forms of functional nervous disease. He suggests that some of its many dangers are due to the fact that hypnotism is practiced by men who are too distrustful of it, and this distrust, unconsciously communicated to the patients, produces an unfortunate effect. On the other hand, fear and distrust on the part of the subjects seriously disturbs the process of hypnotization, interferes with its effect and sometimes leads to unfortunate results.
In some cases it seems that the state of dependence on some one else, at least by suggestion, that had been created during the hypnotic experience, resulted in a diminution of will power and caused a less hopeful state on the patient"s part than before. I found personally that suggestion in the waking state might in most cases be used quite as efficiently as hypnosis itself, and that when improvement came under these circ.u.mstances, the patient always felt more confidence in himself and less in the operator. Anything that restores self-confidence and gives patients the feeling that they can conquer inclinations, tendencies, even habits, if they only will, merely by firmly resolving to do so, is the best possible mental influence for them. The hypnotic relief is always easier, but nothing that is easy is likely to be of lasting value. The enduring effect of gradual cure by suggestion means much more than the hypnotic miracle that these patients are so p.r.o.ne to crave.
At present there is a very general feeling among those who have had considerable experience with hypnotism, that in spite of the claims of certain votaries for it, there is no justification for its frequent or habitual use. It has a definite place in diagnosis, in certain difficult cases, and at the beginning of the treatment of certain forms of the psycho-neuroses. When repeated frequently it is not therapeutic, but is likely to produce serious results in a certain lack of self-control and tendencies to auto-hypnotization with deterioration of character. There is very seldom need of a repet.i.tion of deep hypnosis, and, as a rule, all the diagnostic benefit can be secured in one or two seances. Its continued use only ill.u.s.trates the tendency noted at all times, in the history of medicine, for the unthinking or unprofessional to persist in the application of supposed remedial measures after they have been shown to be useless or even harmful. The subject well deserves further study, but investigations should be carefully made by men who realize the dangers, and who are not likely to be tempted to exploit patients and curious psychological phenomena for the sake of sensational reputation. The use of hypnotism for exhibition purposes, by men who are not physicians, is an unmixed evil, producing entirely wrong impressions on the public, and doing untold evil to the subjects employed.
{163}
SECTION III
_THE INDIVIDUAL PATIENT_