Punctuation.
by Frederick W. Hamilton.
PREFACE
This book, like the others in this Part, makes no pretense at originality. The author has studied and compared a considerable number of works by the best authorities on the subject and has endeavored to adapt the best of their contents to the use of printers" apprentices.
Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each set appears inconsistent with those given by other writers. This inconsistency, however, is generally more apparent than real. It arises from differences in point of view, method of approach, and system of cla.s.sification.
An attempt has been made to compile from these sources a set of rules which would bring before the pupil a correct and comprehensive view of the best current usage, well ill.u.s.trated by examples and accompanied by practical typographical hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mind that this book is intended for a certain definite cla.s.s of pupils and no pains have been spared to fit it to their needs.
Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does, mainly of rules is practically useful only as a basis for constant and persistent drill.
It is, of course, valuable for reference, but the emergencies of the day"s work leave no time for consultation. These rules must be learned, and not only learned but a.s.similated so that their correct application becomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result can be secured only by practice. Hence the emphasis laid on the exercises indicated in the paragraphs introductory to the review questions.
INTRODUCTION
Punctuation is a device by which we aid words to tell their story. Words have done this at times without such aid, and may now do so, but at constant risk of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen by reading the following lines printed as they would have been written in an ancient ma.n.u.script.
WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND ESTABLISHTHISCONSt.i.tUTIONFOR THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA
Probably this particular pa.s.sage could be read without danger of serious misunderstanding. The two well-known pa.s.sages which follow, however, are cases where either a simple statement may become a ridiculous travesty or a serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation.
Punctuate the following so as to express two very different meanings:
Lord Palmerston then entered on his head a white hat upon his feet large but well polished boots upon his brow a dark cloud in his hand a faithful walking stick in his eye a menacing glare saying nothing.
Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a very bad man, and the other a very good man:
He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is never found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of his fellow-creatures he is always ready to a.s.sist in destroying the peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil pa.s.sions he strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the support of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to the devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will receive the just recompense of reward.
Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making the text intelligible and removing as many of the causes of possible misunderstanding as may be, must depend in the last resort on a correct understanding of the text. This understanding may be obtained from the text itself, from the context, that is, the writing as a whole, or from outside knowledge about the matter under consideration.
The prisoner said the witness was a sneak thief.
The prisoner, said the witness, was a sneak thief.
The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the presence or absence of the two commas.
Ma.n.u.script comes in to the printer hastily written by the customer, author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph wire, and there is little or no punctuation. Probably the context will supply the needed information and the line may be set up correctly. If there is no way of finding out what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuation marks which you are not sure are needed.
Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The practice of the art of printing brought the necessity for a defined and systematized use of the points which had, most of them, long been in existence, but which had been used largely according to the personal preferences of the scribes or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of book reproduction came the recognized need for standardization and systematization.
The most ancient inscriptions and ma.n.u.scripts are merely strings of letters, without s.p.a.cing between words or sentences and without any points of any sort, like the example on page 1.
The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its original purpose was simply to furnish a resting place for the eye and the mind and so help a little in the grouping of the letters into words, clauses, and sentences, which the mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. It was used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to indicate abbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially where the sense was ambiguous (ANICEMAN might be either AN ICE MAN or A NICE MAN), or even as an aesthetic ornament between the letters of an inscription. In early ma.n.u.scripts the period is usually placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) instead of low (.).
Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or ..) was used to indicate the end of an important section of the writing or even of a sentence.
After a time s.p.a.ces were introduced to show the grouping of the letters and the words. At first the sentences were separated by s.p.a.ces, then the long words, and finally all words. In some languages, as in Italian, there are still combinations of long and short words, such as the combination of the p.r.o.noun with the verb, as in _datemi_, give me.
During the ma.n.u.script period different schools of copyists and even different individuals used different marks and different systems of pointing. For a considerable time the location of the dot indicated its force. Placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) it had the force of a period.
Placed in a middle position () it had the force of a comma. Placed low (.) it had the force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was not universally observed. A Latin ma.n.u.script of the seventh century has a high dot ([Symbol: High Dot]) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon used as at present, and a dot accompanied by another dot or a dash to indicate the end of a sentence. A Latin ma.n.u.script of the ninth century shows the comma and an inverted semicolon ([Symbol: Comma above Period]) having a value between the semicolon and colon. Mediaeval ma.n.u.script pointing, therefore, approximates modern forms in places, but lacks standardization into recognized systems.
The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence. The early printers used the period at the end of the sentence, the colon, and sometimes the slanting line (/). A reversed semicolon was used as a question mark. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton"s successor in the printing business in London, used five points in 1509. They were the period, the semicolon, the comma, the "interrogative," and the parenthesis.
The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the careful and scholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a printing office in Venice in 1494. The great printers of the early day were great scholars as well.
For a very long time the chief concern of the printer was the opening of the treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were therefore compelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the old ma.n.u.scripts which served them as copy. They naturally took their punctuation from the Greek grammarians, but sometimes with changed meanings. The semicolon, for instance, is the Greek mark of interrogation.
The period took its name from the Greek word [Greek: periodos], periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as we to-day speak of an orator"s eloquent periods.
The colon comes from the Greek [Greek: kolon], kolon, meaning a limb.
The comma comes from the Greek [Greek: komma], komma, from [Greek: koptein], to cut.
The semicolon, of course, is the half colon.
The question mark was made by writing the first and last letters of the Latin word _questio_, a question, vertically, [Symbol: q over o]
The exclamation point was made by writing the letters of the Latin word _Io_, joy, vertically, [Symbol: I over o]
The punctuation marks now in use and treated of in this book are as follows:
, comma ; semicolon : colon . period ? interrogation ! exclamation ( ) parentheses [ ] brackets " apostrophe - hyphen -- dash " " quotation marks
Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly speaking, marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the volume on _Abbreviations and Signs_ (No. 37) in this series.
There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively as the close and open systems. The close, or stiff, system, using points wherever they can be used, is of importance in precise composition of every sort, such as laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiastical statements, and the like. The open, or easy, system, omitting points wherever they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner forms of composition. The tendency, sometimes pushed too far, is toward an extremely open style of punctuation. The general att.i.tude of writers and printers may be summed up by saying that you must justify the use of a punctuation mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission.
But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation at all? Is that not the business of the author, the editor, and the proofreader?
Strictly speaking, yes, but authors generally neglect punctuation, copy is not usually carefully edited before going to the compositor, and proofreader"s corrections are expensive. It is therefore important that the compositor should be intelligent about punctuation, whether he works in a large or a small office.
The question of how far the printer may go in changing or supplying the punctuation of copy will depend largely on circ.u.mstances. If the condition of the ma.n.u.script is such as to show that the author really intended to put a fully punctuated, correctly spelled, and properly capitalized ma.n.u.script into the hands of the printer, he has a right to have his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which prevail in the office. In such a case the compositor should follow copy literally. If any questions are to be raised they should be discussed by the proofreader _with the author_. The same rule holds in the case of ma.n.u.scripts edited before being sent to the composing room. The editor has a.s.sumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In a great many cases the copy will come in carelessly written and wholly unedited.
In such cases the compositor should punctuate as he goes along.
This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to the test of intelligence. Printing is not now and never will be a purely mechanical trade. A printing office is no place for an apprentice who can not learn to think.
This book contains a description of the functions of the punctuation marks and the common rules for their use. Rules for the use of punctuation marks are very different from rules for the use of purely material things. They are useless unless applied intelligently. No set of rules could be devised which would work automatically or relieve the compositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can never be reduced to an exact science.
Certain general directions should be borne in mind by writers and printers.
I. Learn by heart the rules for punctuation.
II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best printers, especially in contemporary examples.
III. Pay constant attention to punctuation in everything you write.