The present Raja, Mathura Das, succeeded his brother Bikramajit, who died in 1834. He had made over the government to his only son, Raja Bahadur, whom he almost adored; but, the young man dying some years before him, the father resumed the reins of government, and held them till his death. He was a man of considerable capacity, but of a harsh and unscrupulous character. His son resembled him; but the present Raja is a man of mild temper and disposition, though of weak intellect. The fate of the last three prime ministers will show the character of the Raja and his son, and the nature of their rule.
The minister at the time the old man made over the reins of government to his son was Khanju Purohit.[1] Wishing to get rid of him a few years after, this son, Raja Bahadur, employed Muhram Singh, one of his feudal Rajput barons, to a.s.sa.s.sinate him. As a reward for this service he received the seals of office; and the Raja confiscated all the property of the deceased, amounting to four lakhs of rupees[2] and resumed the whole of the estates held by the family.
The young Raja died soon after; and his father, when he resumed the reins of government, wishing to remove the new minister, got him a.s.sa.s.sinated by Gambhir Singh, another feudal Rajput baron, who, as his reward, received in his turn the seals of office. This man was a most atrocious villain, and employed the public establishments of his chief to plunder travellers on the high road. In 1833 his followers robbed four men, who were carrying treasure to the amount of ten thousand rupees from Sagar to Jhansi through Tehri, and intended to murder them; but, by the sagacity of one of the party, and a lucky accident, they escaped, made their way back to Sagar, and complained to the magistrate.[3] The[4] minister discovered the nature of their burdens as they lodged at Tehri on their way, and sent after them a party of soldiers, with orders to put them in the bed of a rivulet that separated the territory of Orchha from that of the Jhansi Raja.
One of the treasure party discovered their object; and, on reaching the bank of the rivulet in a deep gra.s.s jungle, he threw down his bundle, dashed unperceived through the gra.s.s, and reached a party of travellers whom he saw ascending a hill about half a mile in advance.
The myrmidons of the minister, when they found that one had escaped, were afraid to murder the others, but took their treasure. In spite of great obstacles, and with much danger to the families of three of those men, who resided in the capital of Tehri, the magistrate of Sagar brought the crime home to the minister, and the Raja, anxious to avail himself of the occasion to fill his coffers, got him a.s.sa.s.sinated. The Raja was then about eighty years of age, and his minister was a strong, athletic, and brave man. One morning while he was sitting with him in private conversation, the former pretended a wish to drink some of the water in which his household G.o.d had been washed (the "chandan mirt"),[5] and begged the minister to go and fetch it from the place where it stood by the side of the idol in the court of the palace. As a man cannot take his sword before the idol, the minister put it down, as the Raja knew he would, and going to the idol, prostrated himself before it preparatory to taking away the water. In that state he was cut down by Bihari,[6] another feudal Rajput baron, who aspired to the seals, and some of his friends, who had been placed there on purpose by the Raja. He obtained the seals by his service, and, as he was allowed to place one brother in command of the forces, and to make another chamberlain, he hoped to retain them longer than any of his predecessors had done. Gambhir Singh"s brother, Jhujhar Singh, and the husband of his sister, hearing of his murder, made off, but were soon pursued and put to death. The widows were all three put into prison, and all the property and estates were confiscated. The movable property amounted to three lakhs of rupees.[7] The Raja boasted to the Governor- General"s representative in Bundelkhand of this act of retributive justice, and pretended that it was executed merely as a punishment for the robbery; but it was with infinite difficulty the merchants could recover from him any share of the plundered property out of that confiscated. The Raja alleged that, according to our _rules_, the chief within whose boundary the robbery might have been committed, was obliged to make good the property. On inspection, it was found that the robbery was perpetrated upon the very boundary line, and "in spite of pride, in erring reason"s spite", the Jhansi Raja was made to pay one-half of the plundered treasure.
The old Raja, Bikramajit, died in June, 1834; and, though his death had been some time expected, he no sooner breathed his last than charges of "dinai", slow poison, were got up, as usual, in the zenana (seraglio).
Here the widow of Raja Bahadur, a violent and sanguinary woman, was supreme; and she persuaded the present Raja, a weak old man, to take advantage of the funeral ceremonies to avenge the death of his brother. He did so; and Bihari, and his three brothers, with above fifty of his relations, were murdered. The widows of the four brothers were the only members of all the families left alive. One of them had a son four months old; another one of two years; the four brothers had no other children. Immediately after the death of their husbands, the two children were s.n.a.t.c.hed from their mothers" b.r.e.a.s.t.s, and threatened with instant death unless their mothers pointed out all their ornaments and other property. They did so; and the spoilers having got from them property to the amount of one hundred and fifty thousand rupees, and been a.s.sured that there was no more, threw the children over the high wall, by which they were dashed to pieces. The poor widows were tendered as wives to four sweepers, the lowest of all low castes; but the tribe of sweepers would not suffer any of its members to take the widows of men of such high caste and station as wives, notwithstanding the tempting offer of five hundred rupees as a present, and a village in rent-free tenure.[8] I secured a promise while at Tehri that these poor widows should be provided for, as they had, up to that time, been preserved by the good feeling of a little community of the lowest of castes, on whom they had been bestowed as a punishment worse than death, inasmuch as it would disgrace the whole cla.s.s to which they belonged, the Parihar Rajputs.[9]
Tehri is a wretched town, without one respectable dwelling-house tenanted beyond the palace, or one merchant, or even shopkeeper of capital and credit. There are some tolerable houses unoccupied and in ruins; and there are a few neat temples built as tombs, or cenotaphs, in or around the city, if city it can be called. The stables and accommodations for all public establishments seem to be all in the same ruinous state as the dwelling-houses. The revenues of the state are spent in feeding Brahmans and religious mendicants of all kinds; and in such idle ceremonies as those at which the Raja and all his court have just been a.s.sisting--ceremonies which concentrate for a few days the most useless of the people of India, the devotee followers (Bairagis) of the G.o.d Vishnu, and tend to no purpose, either useful or ornamental, to the state or to the people.
This marriage of a stone to a shrub, which takes place every year, is supposed to cost the Raja, at the most moderate estimate, three lakhs of rupees a year, or one-fourth of his annual revenue.[10] The highest officers of which his government is composed receive small beggarly salaries, hardly more than sufficient for their subsistence; and the money they make by indirect means they dare not spend like gentlemen, lest the Raja might be tempted to take their lives in order to get hold of it. All his feudal barons are of the same tribe as himself, that is, Rajputs; but they are divided into three clans-- Bundelas, Pawars, and Chandels. A Bundela cannot marry a woman of his own clan, he must take a wife from the Pawars or Chandels; and so of the other two clans--no member of one can take a wife from his own clan, but must go to one of the other two for her. They are very much disposed to fight with each other, but not less are they disposed to unite against any third party, not of the same tribe. Braver men do not, I believe, exist than the Rajputs of Bundelkhand, who all carry their swords from their infancy.[11]
It may be said of the Rajputs of Malwa and Central India generally, that the Mogul Emperors of Delhi made the same use of them that the Emperors of Germany and the Popes made of the military chiefs and cla.s.ses of Europe during the Middle Ages. Industry and the peaceful arts being reduced to agriculture alone under bad government or no government at all, the land remained the only thing worth appropriating; and it accordingly became appropriated by those alone who had the power to do so--by the Hindoo military cla.s.ses collected around the heads of their clans, and powerful in their union. These held it under the paramount power on the feudal tenure of military service, as militia; or it was appropriated by the paramount power itself, who let it out on allodial tenure to peaceful peasantry. The one was the Zamindari, and the other the Malguzari tenure of India.[12]
The military chiefs, essentially either soldiers or robbers, were continually fighting, either against each other, or against the peasantry, or public officers of the paramount power, like the barons of Europe; and that paramount power, or its delegates, often found that the easiest way to crush one of these refractory va.s.sals was to put him, as such men had been put in Germany, to _the ban of the empire_, and offer his lands, his castles, and his wealth to the victor. This victor brought his own clansmen to occupy the lands and castles of the vanquished; and, as these were the only things thought worth living for, the change commonly involved the utter destruction of the former occupants. The new possessors gave the name of their leader, their clan, or their former place of abode, to their new possession, and the tract of country over which they spread. Thus were founded the Bundelas, Pawars, and Chandels [_sic_] upon the ruin of the Chandels of Bundelkhand, the Baghelas in Baghelkhand, or Riwa, the Kachhwahas, the Sakarwars, and others along the Chambal river, and throughout all parts of India.[13]
These cla.s.ses have never learnt anything, or considered anything worth learning, but the use of the sword; and a Rajput chief, next to leading a gang of his own on great enterprises, delights in nothing so much as having a gang or two under his patronage for little ones.
There is hardly a single chief of the Hindoo military cla.s.s in the Bundelkhand or Gwalior territories, who does not keep a gang of robbers of some kind or other, and consider it as a very valuable and legitimate source of revenue; or who would not embrace with cordiality the leader of a gang of a.s.sa.s.sins by profession who should bring him home from every expedition a good horse, a good sword, or a valuable pair of shawls, taken from their victims. It is much the same in the kingdom of Oudh, where the lands are for the most part held by the same Hindoo military cla.s.ses, who are in a continual state of war with each other, or with the Government authorities.
Three-fourths of the recruits for native infantry regiments are from this cla.s.s of military agriculturists of Oudh, who have been trained up in this school of contest; and many of the lads, when they enter our ranks, are found to have marks of the cold steel upon their persons. A braver set of men is hardly anywhere to be found; or one trained up with finer feelings of devotion towards the power whose salt they eat.[14] A good many of the other fourth of the recruits for our native infantry are drawn from among the Ujaini Rajputs, or Rajputs from Ujain,[15] who were established many generations ago in the same manner at Bhojpur on the bank of the Ganges.[16]
Notes:
1. A purohit is a Brahman family priest.
2. Four hundred thousand rupees, worth at that time more than forty thousand pounds sterling.
3. The magistrate was the author.
4. "That" in author"s text.
5. The water of the Ganges, with which the image of the G.o.d Vishnu has been washed, is considered a very holy draught, fit for princes.
That with which the image of the G.o.d Siva, alias Mahadeo, is washed must not be drunk. The popular belief is that in a dispute between him and his wife, Parvati, alias Kali, she cursed the person that should thenceforward dare to drink of the water that flowed over his images on earth. The river Ganges is supposed to flow from the top- knot of Siva"s head, and no one would drink of it after this curse, were it not that the sacred stream is supposed to come first from the _heel_ of Vishnu, the Preserver. All the little images of Siva, that are made out of stones taken from the bed of the Nerbudda river, are supposed to be absolved from this curse, and water thrown upon _them_ can be drunk with impunity. [W. H. S.] The natural emblems of Siva, the Bana-linga quartz pebbles found in the Nerbudda, have already been referred to in the note to Chapter 19, _ante_, note 9. In the Maratha country the "household G.o.ds" generally comprise five sacred symbols, namely, the _salagrama_ stone of Vishnu, the _bana-linga_ of Siva, a metallic stone representing the female principle in nature (Sakti), a crystal representing the sun, and a red stone representing Ganesh, the remover of obstacles. The details of the tiresome ritual observed in the worship of these objects occupy pp. 412 to 416 of Monier Williams"s _Religious Thought and Life in India_.
6. "Beearee" in author"s text.
7. Then worth more than thirty thousand pounds sterling.
8. On the customs of the sweeper caste, see _ante_, Chapter 8, following note [11].
9. The Parihars were the rulers of Bundelkhand before the Chandels.
The chief of Uchhahara belongs to this clan.
10. Wealthy Hindoos, throughout India, spend money in the same ceremonies of marrying the stone to the shrub. [W. H. S.] Three lakhs of rupees were then worth thirty thousand pounds sterling or more.
11. The numerous clans, more or less devoted to war, grouped together under the name of Rajputs (literally "king"s sons"), are in reality of multifarious origin, and include representatives of many races.
They are the Kshatriyas of the law-books, and are still often called Chhattri (_E.H.I._, 3rd ed., pp. 407-15). In some parts of the country the word Thakur is more familiar as their general t.i.tle.
Thirty-six clans are considered as specially pure-blooded and are called, at any rate in books, the "royal races". All the clans follow the custom of exogamy. The Chandels (Chandella) ruled Bundelkhand from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries. Their capital was Mahoba, now a station on the Midland Railway. The Bundelas became prominent at a later date, and attained their greatest power under Chhatarsal (_circa_ A.D. 1671-1731). Their territory is now known as Bundelkhand. The country so designated is not an administrative division. It is partly in the United Provinces, partly in the Central Provinces, and partly in Native States. It is bounded on the north by the Jumna; on the north and west by the Chambal river; on the south by the Central Provinces, and on the south and east by Riwa and the Kaimur hills. The traditions of both the Bundelas and Chandellas show that there is a strain of the blood of the earlier, so--called aboriginal, races in both clans. The Pawar (Pramara) clan ranks high, but is now of little political importance (See _N.W.P. Gazetteer_, 1st ed., vol. vii, p. 68).
12. The paramount power often a.s.signed a portion of its reserved lands in "Jagir" to public officers for the establishments they required for the performance of the duties, military or civil, which were expected from them. Other portions were a.s.signed in rent-free tenure for services already performed, or to favourites; but, in both cases, the rights of the village or land owner, or allodial proprietors, were supposed to be unaffected, as the Government was presumed to a.s.sign only its own claim to a certain portion as revenue. [W. H. S.] The term "ryotwar" (raiyatwar) is commonly used to designate the system under which the cultivators hold their lands direct from the State. The subject of tenures is further discussed by the author in Chapters 70, 71.
13. For elaborate comparisons between the Rajput policy and the feudal system of Europe, Tod"s _Rajasthan_ may be consulted. The parallel is not really so close as it appears to be at first sight.
In some respects the organization of the Highland clans is more similar to that of the Rajputs than the feudal system is. The Chambal river rises in Malwa, and, after a course of some five hundred and seventy miles, falls into the Jumna forty miles below Etawa. The statement in the text concerning the succession of clans is confused.
The ruling family of Riwa still belongs to the Baghel clan. The Maharaja of Jaipur (Jeypore) is a Kachhwaha.
14. The barbarous habit of alliance and connivance with robber gangs is by no means confined to Rajput n.o.bles and landholders. Men of all creeds and castes yield to the temptation and magistrates are sometimes startled to find that Honorary Magistrates, Members of District Boards, and others of apparently the highest respectability, are the abettors and secret organizers of robber bands. A modern example of this fact was discovered in the Meerut and Muzaffarnagar Districts of the United Provinces in 1890 and 1891. In this case the wealthy supporters of the banditti were Jats and Muhammadans.
The unfortunate condition of Oudh previous to the annexation in 1856 is vividly described in the author"s _Journey through the Kingdom of Oude_, published in 1858. The tour took place in 1849-50. Some districts of the kingdom, especially Hardoi, are still tainted by the old lawlessness.
The remarks on the fine feelings of devotion shown by the sepoys must now be read in the light of the events of the Mutiny. Since that time the army has been reorganized, and depends on Oudh for its recruits much less than it did in the author"s day.
15. Ujain (Ujjain, Oojeyn) is a very ancient city, on the river Sipra, in Malwa, in the dominions of Sindhia, the chief of Gwalior.
16. Bhajpore in the author"s text. The town referred to is Bhojpur in the Shahabad district of South Bihar.
CHAPTER 24
Corn Dealers--Scarcities--Famines in India.
Near Tehri we saw the people irrigating a field of wheat from a tank by means of a canoe, in a mode quite new to me. The surface of the water was about three feet below that of the field to be watered. The inner end of the canoe was open, and placed to the mouth of a gutter leading into the wheat-field. The outer end was closed, and suspended by a rope to the outer end of a pole, which was again suspended to cross-bars. On the inner end of this pole was fixed a weight of stones sufficient to raise the canoe when filled with water; and at the outer end stood five men, who pulled down and sank the canoe into the water as often as it was raised by the stones, and emptied into the gutter. The canoe was more curved at the outer end than ordinary canoes are, and seemed to have been made for the purpose. The lands round the town generally were watered by the Persian wheel; but, where it [_scil._ the water] is near the surface, this [_scil._ the canoe arrangement] I should think a better method.[1]
On the 10th[2] we came on to the village of Bilgai, twelve miles over a bad soil, badly cultivated; the hard syenitic rock rising either above or near to the surface all the way--in some places abruptly, in small hills, decomposing into large rounded boulders--in others slightly and gently, like the backs of whales in the ocean-in others, the whole surface of the country resembled very much the face of the sea, not after, but really in, a storm, full of waves of all sizes, contending with each other "in most admired disorder". After the dust of Tehri, and the fatiguing ceremonies of its court, the quiet morning I spent in this secluded spot under the shade of some beautiful trees, with the surviving canary singing, my boy playing, and my wife sleeping off the fatigues of her journey, was to me most delightful. Henry was extremely ill when we left Jubbulpore; but the change of air, and all the other changes incident to a march, have restored him to health.
During the scarcity of 1833 two hundred people died of starvation in this village alone;[3] and were all thrown into one large well, which has, of course, ever since remained closed. Autumn crops chiefly are cultivated; and they depend entirely on the sky for water, while the poor people of the village depend upon the returns of a single season for subsistence during the whole year. They lingered on in the hope of aid from above till the greater part had become too weak from want of food to emigrate. The Raja gave half a crown to every family;[4]
but this served merely to kindle their hopes of more, and to prolong their misery. Till the people have a better government they can never be secure from frequent returns of similar calamities. Such security must depend upon a greater variety of crops, and better means of irrigation; better roads to bring supplies over from distant parts which have not suffered from the same calamities; and greater means in reserve of paying for such supplies when brought--things that can never be hoped for under a government like this, which allows no man the free enjoyment of property.
Close to the village a large wall has been made to unite two small hills, and form a small lake; but the wall is formed of the rounded boulders of the syenitic rock without cement, and does not retain the water. The land which was to have formed the bed of the lake is all in tillage; and I had some conversation with the man who cultivated it. He told me that the wall had been built with the money of _sin_, and not the money of _piety_ (_pap ke paisa se, na pun ke paisa se bana_), that the man who built it must have laid out his money with a _worldly_, and not a _religious_ mind (_niyat_); that on such occasions men generally a.s.sembled Brahmans and other deserving people, and fed and clothed them, and thereby _consecrated_ a great work, and made it acceptable to G.o.d, and he had heard from his ancestors that the man who had built this wall had failed to do this; that the construction could never, of course, answer the purpose for which it was intended--and that the builder"s name had actually been forgotten, and the work did him no good either in this world or the next. This village, which a year or two ago was large and populous, is now reduced to two wretched huts inhabited by two very miserable families.
Bundelkhand suffers more often and more severely from the want of seasonable showers of rain than any other part of India; while the province of Malwa, which adjoins it on the west and south, hardly ever suffers at all.[5] There is a couplet, which, like all other good couplets on rural subjects, is attributed to Sahdeo [Sahadeva], one of the five demiG.o.d brothers of the Mahabharata, to this effect: "If you hear not the thunder on such a night, you, father, go to Malwa, I to Gujarat;"--that is, there will be no rain, and we must seek subsistence where rains never fail, and the harvests are secure.
The province of Malwa is well studded with hills and groves of fine trees, which intercept the clouds as they are wafted by the prevailing westerly winds, from the Gulf of Cambay to the valley of the Ganges, and make them drop their contents upon a soil of great natural powers, formed chiefly from the detritus of the decomposing basaltic rocks, which cap and intersect these hills.[6]
During the famine of 1833, as on all similar occasions, grain of every kind, attracted by high prices, flowed up in large streams from this favoured province towards Bundelkhand; and the population of Bundelkhand, as usual in such times of dearth and scarcity, flowed off towards Malwa against the stream of supply, under the a.s.surance that the nearer they got to the source, the greater would be their chance of employment and subsistence. Every village had its numbers of the dead and the dying; and the roads were all strewed with them; but they were mostly concentrated upon the great towns and civil and military stations, where subscriptions were open[ed] for their support, by both the European and native communities. The funds arising from these subscriptions lasted till the rains had set fairly in, when all able-bodied persons could easily find employment in tillage among the agricultural communities of villages around. After the rains have fairly set in, the _sick_ and _helpless_ only should be kept concentrated upon large towns and stations, where little or no employment is to be found; for the oldest and youngest of those who are able to work can then easily find employment in weeding the cotton, rice, sugar-cane, and other fields under autumn crops, and in preparing the lands for the reception of the wheat, gram,[7] and other spring seeds; and get advances from the farmers, agricultural capitalists[8] and other members of the village communities, who are all glad to share their superfluities with the distressed, and to pay liberally for the little service they are able to give in return.
It is very unwise to give from such funds what may be considered a full rate of subsistence to able-bodied persons, as it tends to keep concentrated upon such points vast numbers who would otherwise be scattered over the surface of the country among the village communities, who would be glad to advance them stock and the means of subsistence upon the pledge of their future services when the season of tillage commences. The rate of subsistence should always be something less than what the able-bodied person usually consumes, and can get for his labour in the field. For the sick and feeble this rate will be enough, and the healthy and able-bodied, with unimpaired appet.i.tes, will seek a greater rate by the offer of their services among the farmers and cultivators of the surrounding country. By this precaution, the ma.s.s of suffering will be gradually diffused over the country, so as best to receive what the country can afford to give for its relief. As soon as the rains set in, all the able-bodied men, women, and children should be sent off with each a good blanket, and a rupee or two, as the funds can afford, to last them till they can engage themselves with the farmers. Not a farthing after that day should be given out, except to the feeble and sick, who may be considered as hospital patients.[9]
At large places, where the greater numbers are concentrated, the scene becomes exceedingly distressing, for, in spite of the best dispositions and greatest efforts on the part of Government and its officers, and the European and native communities, thousands commonly die of starvation. At Sagar, mothers, as they lay in the streets unable to walk, were seen holding up their infants, and imploring the pa.s.sing stranger to take them in slavery, that they might at least live--hundreds were seen creeping into gardens, courtyards, and old ruins, concealing themselves under shrubs, gra.s.s, mats, or straw, where they might die quietly, without having their bodies torn by birds and beasts before the breath had left them. Respectable families, who left home in search of the favoured land of Malwa, while yet a little property remained, finding all exhausted, took opium rather than beg, and husband, wife, and children died in each other"s arms. Still more of such families lingered on in hope till all had been expended; then shut their doors, took poison and died all together, rather than expose their misery, and submit to the degradation of begging. All these things I have myself known and seen; and, in the midst of these and a hundred other harrowing scenes which present themselves on such occasions, the European cannot fail to remark the patient resignation with which the poor people submit to their fate; and the absence of almost all those revolting acts which have characterized the famines of which he has read in other countries--such as the living feeding on the dead, and mothers devouring their own children. No such things are witnessed in Indian famines;[10] here all who suffer attribute the disaster to its real cause, the want of rain in due season; and indulge in no feelings of hatred against their rulers, superiors, or more fortunate equals in society who happen to live beyond the range of such calamities. They gratefully receive the superfluities which the more favoured are always found ready to share with the afflicted in India; and, though their sufferings often subdue the strongest of all pride, the pride of caste, they rarely ever drive the people to acts of violence. The stream of emigration, guided as it always is by that of the agricultural produce flowing in from the more favoured countries, must necessarily concentrate upon the communities along the line it takes a greater number of people than they have the means of relieving, however benevolent their dispositions; and I must say that I have never either seen or read of a n.o.bler spirit than seems to animate all cla.s.ses of these communities in India on such distressing occasions.
In such seasons of distress, we often, in India, hear of very injudicious interference with grain dealers on the part of civil and military authorities, who contrive to persuade themselves that the interest of these corn-dealers, instead of being in accordance with the interests of the people, are entirely opposed to them; and conclude that, whenever grain becomes dear, they have a right to make them open their granaries, and sell their grain at such price as they, in their wisdom, may deem reasonable. If they cannot make them do this by persuasion, fine, or imprisonment, they cause their pits to be opened by their own soldiers or native officers, and the grain to be sold at an arbitrary price. If, in a hundred pits thus opened, they find one in which the corn happens to be damaged by damp, they come to the sage conclusion that the proprietors must be what they have all along supposed them to be, and treated as such--_the common enemies of mankind_--who, blind alike to their own interests and those of the people, purchase up the superabundance of seasons of plenty, not to sell it again in seasons of scarcity, but _to destroy it_; and that the whole of the grain in the other ninety-nine pits, but for their _timely interference_, must have inevitably shared the same fate.[11]