How much water is there in apples and rhubarb (see _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28 and Figure 70)?
LESSON CLV
TWO-CRUST PIES
TWO CRUSTS.--If both upper and lower crusts are used in making a pie, the lower crust should be placed inside the pan. The filling should be added, the edge of the crust moistened, and the upper crust placed over the pie and pressed around the edges. Then the edges should be trimmed. As was mentioned before, upper crusts should always be cut in several places for the escape of steam.
Sometimes a half-inch strip of pastry is placed around the edge of the under crust before placing the upper crust. This is thought to aid in preventing the escape of the moisture of the filling.
APPLE PIE
Cut 4 or 5 apples into slices, and for each apple use 2 tablespoonfuls (or more) of sugar. If the apples are not juicy, add from 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful of water for each apple. Flavor with 1 teaspoonful each of lemon juice and rind, 1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon or nutmeg, and 1/8 teaspoonful salt. Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, pour in the apple mixture. Add bits of b.u.t.ter, and cover with pastry as directed above. Bake until the apples are soft and the crust is brown, i.e. at 425 degrees F., 35 to 45 minutes.
Apple sauce may be used as a filling for a baked crust. Such a pie is sometimes covered with meringue or strips of pastry.
FRUIT PIE WITH TWO CRUSTS
2 cupfuls fruit 1/2 to 1 cupful sugar 3 tablespoonfuls flour
If the fruit is fresh, wash and drain it well. Mix the sugar and flour.
Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, add half of the sugar and flour mixture. Add the fruit, and then the remainder of the sugar and flour.
Cover with a top crust according to the directions above.
QUESTIONS
Explain why pie with only one crust, if properly made, is more desirable than that with two crusts (see _Pie with Under Crust_).
Why should fresh fruit, for fruit pie with two crusts, be well drained after washing?
Give three ways of preventing the juice from boiling over, in a pie with two crusts.
Compare pastry that is made with lard, lard subst.i.tutes, vegetable oils and b.u.t.ter, as to taste, appearance, flakiness or friability, and tenderness.
RELATED WORK
LESSON CLVI
INFANT FEEDING
PERFECT FOOD FOR INFANTS.--Nature in her wisdom provides ideal food for the infant,--mother"s milk. No perfect subst.i.tute has been found for it.
It is most unfortunate when a child is denied this food.
It has been found [Footnote 117: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., p. 98.] that babies fed with mother"s milk are much less likely to contract disease and much more apt to grow to maturity. A mother"s milk is adapted to the needs of her child. It agrees with the infant and nourishes it well. A practical advantage of a healthy mother"s milk is that it is sterile and of the proper temperature.
MODIFIED MILK.--In case it is necessary to give the infant artificial diet, the greatest care should be taken to provide clean, easily digested food. Cow"s milk is the basis of the food generally chosen. The way babies digest cow"s milk shows the necessity of changing or _modifying_ it to meet the needs of an infant. Cow"s milk is modified sometimes by diluting it to make it digest easier and adding other ingredients to it.
In order to increase the fuel value of diluted milk, carbohydrate food of some soluble, easily digested kind is added. Sometimes gruel or cereal water is used as one of the const.i.tuents of modified milk.
Formulas for modified milk vary with the individual infant. A physician should be consulted regarding the formula for food for a baby.
(_a_) _Utensils_ for measuring and preparing the ingredients of modified milk should be kept very clean. Before using, all gla.s.s and metal utensils used for measuring and holding the milk should be covered with cold water, then the water should be heated and allowed to boil for twenty minutes. Just before using rubber nipples, place them in boiling water for a few minutes. After using, they should be rinsed in cold water and then carefully washed inside and out with soap and water. When not in use, nipples should be kept in a clean covered jar or jelly gla.s.s. (The jar and cover should be sterilized daily.) After using the milk bottles (have as many bottles as there are feedings a day), rinse them in cold water, and then fill them with water and add a pinch of baking soda. Before filling the bottle with milk, wash with soap and water--using a bottle brush--and then sterilize in boiling water for twenty minutes (as directed above).
Bacteria cannot pa.s.s through cotton, hence it is used for stoppering the filled milk bottles. It should be clean, however. Paper caps are also used.
(_b_)_ Ingredients_.--(1) _Milk_.--The selection of milk for an infant is an important consideration. _Clean milk_ is most essential. Milk is considered clean when it comes from dairy farms where clean milkers work under sanitary conditions, approved by a medical milk commission (see _Care of Milk_). Such milk contains few bacteria and is called _certified milk_. This is by far the safest milk for infant diet, but it is expensive. It usually costs almost twice as much as ordinary milk. Milk is _pasteurized_ commercially by heating it to 150 degrees F., keeping it at that temperature for about thirty minutes, and then quickly cooling it. While pasteurizing kills most of the disease-producing germs, it does not destroy all the spores (see _Microorganisms in theSpore Form_). The taste of milk is not affected by pasteurizing. Milk is _sterilized_--all germ life destroyed--by heating at 212 degrees F. from one to one and one half hours.
Since the value of milk as an infant food depends upon its cleanliness, it is difficult to state just how old milk may be before it is unsafe for infant feeding. It is safest to use only _fresh_ milk. Bacteria in milk may develop so rapidly that it is unfit to use a few hours after it has been drawn from the cow. Unless milk is certified, it should not be used in summer after it is twenty-four hours old, and in winter, after it is forty-eight hours old. _Bottled_ milk should be used for infants.
According to most plans for modifying milk, _whole milk_ is used.
(2) _Sugar._--Several kinds of sugar are used in modified milk. These are:
Milk sugar or lactose.
Malt sugar combined with dextrin or dextrimaltose.
Granulated sugar or cane sugar.
The advice of a physician should be consulted regarding the kind of sugar best suited to the needs of the particular infant. The first two kinds of sugar can be obtained at a drug store. Granulated sugar is too sweet for general use.
(3) _Water or Cereal Water._--If plain water is to be used with milk, it should be boiled before adding to the other ingredients.
In some cases, gruel or cereal water is added. Usually rolled oats or barley flour is the grain used. To prepare either of these use:
4 tablespoonfuls rolled oats _or_ 3 tablespoonfuls barley flour 1 quart cold water
Mix and boil gently until the mixture is reduced to a pint. Then strain through a fine wire strainer or muslin.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Figure 87.--Graduated Measure and Dipper for Measuring the Ingredients of Modified Milk.]
(_c_) _Method of Mixing_.--Measure the sugar. This ingredient is usually measured in ounces, tablespoonfuls, or teaspoonfuls. (1 1/2 dipperfuls (Figure 87) of milk sugar weigh 1 ounce.) In the graduated measure (Figure 87), measure the water or cereal water for diluting the milk and dissolve the sugar in it. Stir the mixture until the sugar is completely dissolved. Then pour it into the mixing pitcher. Measure the milk (and other ingredients if required) and pour into pitcher. Mix thoroughly. While stirring, turn the proper quant.i.ty of food into as many sterilized bottles as are required for a day"s feeding. Stopper with cotton or cap. If the milk used is certified, place in a clean refrigerator until used for feeding. If the milk is not certified, it may be pasteurized.
PASTEURIZING MILK AT HOME.--Place the bottles of milk in a wire basket.
Then place the basket in a kettle. Pour water in the kettle so that the water is a little higher outside of the bottles than the surface of the milk inside. Heat the water and let it boil for 5 minutes. (Do not begin to count the time until the water reaches the boiling point.) At once cool the milk by allowing a stream of cold water to displace the hot water. Do not allow the cold water to run directly on the hot bottles. When the milk is cooled, place the bottles immediately in a clean refrigerator.
PREPARATION OF MILK BEFORE FEEDING.--At feeding time, milk should be heated to about 98 degrees F. Place the bottle in a pan of warm water.
Test the milk for proper temperature. Use the method described in Junket "Custard", for testing the temperature of the milk. Shake the bottle before feeding.
OTHER FOODS GIVEN TO INFANTS.--In addition to modified milk, boiled water should be given to infants. A few other foods--egg yolk or vegetable juices and orange juice--may often be given during the first year. The egg yolk should be soft-cooked. This food supplies iron and increases the Calorific value of the diet. Orange juice (strained through muslin) may be usually given at five or six months of age. It is especially necessary to give orange juice to infants whose milk is pasteurized or sterilized. Its use prevents constipation and scurvy.
ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF AN INFANT.--The energy requirement of an infant is greater than one would suppose. Growth and development are going on at a rapid rate. Like the adult, a baby asleep needs energy to carry on the involuntary activities of its body. When awake such muscular activities as crying, kicking, and throwing of arms require energy. An infant"s energy requirement is usually based upon its body weight. According to generally accepted standards [Footnote 118: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., p. 103.] an infant"s average energy requirement is:
1st to 3d months 50 Calories per pound per day 4th to 6th months 45 Calories per pound per day 7th to 9th months 40 Calories per pound per day 10th to 12th months 35 Calories per pound per day
QUANt.i.tY OF FOOD.--When a baby must be given artificial food entirely or as a supplement to natural food, it is safest and most satisfactory to follow the advice of a physician. It is said, however, that an infant requires an average of 1 1/2 ounces of milk per day for every pound of body weight. After the eighth month, this quant.i.ty of milk is usually decreased first to 1 1/3 and then to 1 1/4 ounces for every pound of body weight per day.