(_c_) Find the number of cupfuls in one pint
Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise
A quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIGURE 9--UTENSILS FOR MEASURING AND WEIGHING FOODS]
An eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally
A third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise
A set of measuring spoons (see Figure 9) is most convenient for measuring fractional teaspoonfuls
NEED OF ACCURACY--When learning to cook, it is necessary to measure all ingredients with exactness. Experienced cooks can measure some ingredients for certain purposes quite satisfactorily "by eye". The result is satisfactory, however, only when the cook has established her own standards of measurements by much practice. Even then many housewives are not _sure_ of success. For certain foods the ingredients should always be measured accurately, no matter how skilful the cook. As far as possible, the exact quant.i.ty of a recipe is given in this text. When the quant.i.ty of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement, merely the name of the ingredient is given and no definite quant.i.ty indicated.
When large quant.i.ties of materials are to be measured, a quart measure on which the pint and half pint quant.i.ties are indicated usually proves more convenient than a measuring cup. Many foods, especially fats, are more conveniently weighed than measured. Kitchen scales are a useful equipment for cooking (see Figure 9).
The amateur should, however, train her eye to approximate measurements.
She should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cooking utensils, and also of serving dishes. Measure by cupfuls the capacity of several utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards of measurement.
Also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quant.i.ty of food to buy at market, and the proper quant.i.ty of food to cook for a stated number of persons. She would make a sad failure who would prepare just enough rice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table. She might be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting facts concerning its growth, composition, and preparation, yet for the lack of a little homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing. A thrifty housekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people when there were only six to be served. In the school kitchen always note the quant.i.ty of the materials used, and then observe the quant.i.ty of the finished product.
EXPERIMENT 2: USE OF THE WOODEN SPOON.--Place a tin and a wooden spoon in a saucepan of boiling water. After the water has boiled for at least 5 minutes grasp the handles of the spoons. Which is the hotter? Which would be the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods? What kind of spoon--tin or wood--should be used for acid foods? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)
Explain why it is that the handles of teakettles, k.n.o.bs on covers for saucepans, etc., are of wood.
STUFFED TOMATOES
6 ripe tomatoes 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper 3/4 teaspoonful mixed herbs 2 tablespoonfuls b.u.t.ter or subst.i.tute
Wash the tomatoes, remove a slice from the tops, and take out most of the seed portion. Add the seasoning to the bread crumbs, melt the fat, then add the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat. Fill the tomatoes with the prepared crumbs, place them in an oiled baking-pan, and bake slowly (about 20 minutes) until the tomatoes are soft but not broken, and the crumbs brown. Test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer (see Figure 1) rather than with a fork.
For mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram, savory, and thyme.
_Soft bread crumbs_ are prepared from stale bread, _i.e._ bread that has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours.
Vegetables, such as corn and canned peas, may be used instead of bread crumbs to stuff tomatoes. Use salt, pepper, and b.u.t.ter with these vegetables.
Use a granite, gla.s.s, or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)
SCALLOPED TOMATOES [Footnote 3: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Recipes for both fresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending upon the season can be made.]
1 can or 1 quart tomatoes 1 tablespoonful salt Dash pepper 3 cupfuls bread crumbs 3 tablespoonfuls b.u.t.ter or subst.i.tute
If fresh tomatoes are used, plunge them into boiling water, then drain and peel and cut into pieces.
Mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a b.u.t.tered baking- dish. Cover with b.u.t.tered crumbs (see Stuffed Tomatoes) and bake at 400 degrees F., 30 to 40 minutes. Cover during first part of baking to prevent the crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve hot. A scalloped dish should be served from the dish in which it is baked.
Green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes.
Soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes. Use only 1 cupful of the dried crumbs.
TO GREASE OR OIL A PAN OR BAKING-DISH.--Heat slightly the pan or dish to be oiled. Put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper. Then rub the heated pan or dish with the paper. This is a most satisfactory method because little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do not have to be cleaned. Often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may be wiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan. It is well for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchen for this purpose. Some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactory means of applying melted b.u.t.ter for oiling. Much fat, however, clings to the bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and careful cleaning.
b.u.t.ter, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable fats, or oils may be used for oiling pans or baking-dishes.
QUESTIONS
In stuffed tomatoes, note that the seasonings are added to the crumbs before they are b.u.t.tered. Why?
Why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with a fork?
What kind of baking-pan--tin, granite, or earthenware--is best to use for Stuffed or Scalloped Tomatoes? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_, p.65)
Are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or peck?
What is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck?
How many slices of bread are required to make 2 cupfuls of crumbs?
How many slices in one loaf of bread?
LESSON III
FUELS AND COMBUSTION--SAUTED AND BAKED SQUASH
FUEL.--In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. This heat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the first requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn, _i.e._ a fuel. The fuels commonly used in households are,--wood, coal, kerosene, and gas.
Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so well established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat.
HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.--There are fuel substances everywhere,--paper, cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas does not burn by simply turning on the stopc.o.c.k. But if a piece of paper is placed in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because it is heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood and coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by the burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood.
All fuels must be heated before they will burn.
When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of the difficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that some substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn, while others require much heat. Different materials, then, require different degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances on the tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbing the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. The burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the temperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied to paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. The temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and continue to burn is called the _kindling temperature_ of that substance.
DRAFT; OXYGEN.--
EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.--(_a_) Place a short candle on a pan.
Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does the candle continue to burn? Why?
(_b_) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this time support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so that it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece of cardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn?
Why?
EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.--Remove the cover from the top of the chimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? What substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain why the candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in this experiment.
If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceases to burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded from it. _The act of burning,_ i.e. _combustion, is the union of any substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light are produced._ We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until heated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuel will not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the third requisite for combustion.