It is nearly certain that Epictetus never committed any of his doctrines to writing. Like his great exemplar. Socrates, he contented himself with oral instruction, and the bulk of what has come down to us in his name consists in the _Discourses_ reproduced for us by his pupil Arrian. It was the ambition of Arrian "to be to Epictetus what Xenophon had been to Socrates," that is, to hand down to posterity a n.o.ble and faithful picture of the manner in which his master had lived and taught. With this view, he wrote four books on Epictetus,--a life, which is now unhappily lost; a book of conversation or "table talk," which is also lost; and two books which have come down to us, viz. the _Discourses_ and the _Manual_. It is from these two invaluable books, and from a good many isolated fragments, that we are enabled to judge what was the practical morality of Stoicism, as expounded by the holy and upright slave.
The _Manual_ is a kind of abstract of Epictetus"s ethical principles, which, with many additional ill.u.s.trations and with more expansion, are also explained in the _Discourses_. Both books were so popular that by their means Arrian first came into conspicuous notice, and ultimately attained the highest eminence and rank. The _Manual_ was to antiquity what the _Imitatio_ of Thomas a Kempis was to later times, and what Woodhead"s _Whole Duty of Man_ or Wilberforce"s _Practical View of Christianity_ have been to large sections of modern Englishmen. It was a clear, succinct, and practical statement of common daily duties, and the principles upon which they rest. Expressed in a manner entirely simple and unornate, its popularity was wholly due to the moral elevation of the thoughts which it expressed. Epictetus did not aim at style; his one aim was to excite his hearers to virtue, and Arrian tells us that in this endeavour he created a deep impression by his manner and voice. It is interesting to know that the _Manual_ was widely accepted among Christians no less than among Pagans, and that, so late as the fifth century, paraphrases were written of it for Christian use. No systematic treatise of morals so simply beautiful was ever composed, and to this day the best Christian may study it, not with interest only, but with real advantage. It is like the voice of the Sybil, which, uttering things simple, and unperfumed, and unadorned, by G.o.d"s grace reacheth through innumerable years. We proceed to give a short sketch of its contents.
Epictetus began by laying down the broad comprehensive statement that there are some things which are in our power, and depend upon ourselves; other things which are beyond our power, and wholly independent of us.
The things which are in our power are our opinions, our aims, our desires, our aversions--in a word, _our actions_. The things beyond our power are bodily accidents, possessions, fame, rank, and whatever lies _beyond_ the sphere of our actions. To the former of these cla.s.ses of things our whole attention must be confined. In that region we may be n.o.ble, unperturbed, and free; in the other we shall be dependent, frustrated, querulous, miserable. Both cla.s.ses cannot be successfully attended to; they are antagonistic, antipathetic; we cannot serve G.o.d and Mammon.
Now, if we take a right view of all these things which in no way depend on ourselves we shall regard them as mere semblances--as shadows which are to be distinguished from the true substance. We shall not look upon them as fit subjects for aversion or desire. Sin and cruelty, and falsehood we may hate, because we can avoid them if we will; but we must look upon sickness, and poverty, and death as things which are _not_ fit subjects for our avoidance, because they lie wholly beyond our control.
This, then,--endurance of the inevitable, avoidance of the evil--is the keynote of the Epictetean philosophy. It has been summed up in the three words, [Greek: Anechou kai apechou], "_sustine et abstine_," "Bear and forbear,"--bear whatever G.o.d a.s.signs to you, abstain from that which He forbids.
The earlier part of the _Manual_ is devoted to practical advice which may enable men to endure n.o.bly. For instance, "If there be anything,"
says Epictetus, "which you highly value or tenderly love, estimate at the same time its true nature. Is it some possession? remember that it may be destroyed. Is it wife or child? remember that they may die."
"Death," says an epitaph in Chester Cathedral--
"Death, the great monitor, comes oft to prove, "Tis dust we dote on, when "tis man we love."
"Desire nothing too much. If you are going to the public baths and are annoyed or hindered by the rudeness, the pushing, the abuse, the thievish propensities of others, do not lose your temper: remind yourself that it is more important that you should keep your will in harmony with nature than that you should bathe. And so with all troubles; men suffer far less from the things themselves than from the opinions they have of them."
"If you cannot frame your circ.u.mstances in accordance with your wishes, frame your will into harmony with your circ.u.mstances.[64] When you lose the best gifts of life, consider them as not lost but only resigned to Him who gave them. You have a remedy in your own heart against all trials--continence as a bulwark against pa.s.sion, patience against opposition, fort.i.tude against pain. Begin with trifles: if you are robbed, remind yourself that your peace of mind is of more value and importance than the thing which has been stolen from you. Follow the guidance of nature; that is the great thing; regret nothing, desire nothing, which can disturb that end. Behave as at a banquet--take with grat.i.tude and in moderation what is set before you, and seek for nothing more; a higher and diviner step will be to be ready and able to forego even that which is given you, or which you might easily obtain.
Sympathise with others, at least externally, when they are in sorrow and misfortune; but remember in your own heart that to the brave and wise and true there is really no such thing as misfortune; it is but an ugly semblance; the croak of the raven can portend no harm to such a man, he is elevated above its power."
[Footnote 64: "When what thou willest befalls not, thou then must will what befalleth."]
"We do not choose our own parts in life, and have nothing to do with those parts; our simple duty is confined to playing them well. The slave may be as free as the consul; and freedom is the chief of blessings; it dwarfs all others; beside it all others are insignificant, with it all others become needless, without it no others are possible. No one can insult you if you will not regard his words or deeds as insults.[65]
Keep your eye steadily fixed on the great reality of death, and all other things will shrink to their true proportions. As in a voyage, when a ship has come to anchor, if you have gone out to find water, you may amuse yourself with picking up a little sh.e.l.l or bulb, but you must keep your attention steadily fixed upon the ship, in case the captain should call, and then you must leave all such things lest you should be flung on board, bound like sheep. So in life; if, instead of a little sh.e.l.l or bulb, some wifeling or childling be granted you, well and good; but, if the captain call, run to the ship and leave such possessions behind you, not looking back. But if you be an old man, take care not to go a long distance from the ship at all, lest you should be called and come too late." The metaphor is a significant one, and perhaps the following lines of Sir Walter Scott, prefixed anonymously to one of the chapters of the Waverley Novels, may help to throw light upon it:
"Death finds us "midst our playthings; s.n.a.t.c.hes us, As a cross nurse might do a wayward child, From all our toys and baubles--the rough call Unlooses all our favourite ties on earth: And well if they are such as may be answered In yonder world, where all is judged of truly."
[Footnote 65: Compare Cowper"s _Conversation_:-- "Am I to set my life upon a throw Because a bear is rude and surly?--No.-- A modest, sensible, and well-bred man Will not insult me, and _no other can_."]
"Preserve your just relations to other men; their misconduct does not affect your duties. Has your father done wrong, or your brother been unjust? Still he _is_ your father, he _is_ your brother; and you must consider your relation to him, not whether he be worthy of it or no.
"Your duty towards the G.o.ds is to form just and true opinions respecting them. Believe that they do all things well, and then you need never murmur or complain."
"As rules of practice," says Epictetus, "prescribe to yourself an ideal, and then act up to it. Be mostly silent; or, if you converse, do not let it be about vulgar and insignificant topics, such as dogs, horses, racing, or prize-fighting. Avoid foolish and immoderate laughter, vulgar entertainments, impurity, display, spectacles, recitations, and all egotistical remarks. Set before you the examples of the great and good.
Do not be dazzled by mere appearances. Do what is right quite irrespective of what people will say or think. Remember that your body is a very small matter and needs but very little; just as all that the foot needs is a shoe, and not a dazzling ornament of gold, purple, or jewelled embroidery. To spend all one"s time on the body, or on bodily exercises, shows a weak intellect. Do not be fond of criticising others, and do not resent their criticisms of you. Everything," he says, and this is one of his most characteristic precepts, "has two handles! one by which it may be borne, the other by which it cannot. If your brother be unjust, do not take up the matter by that handle--the handle of his injustice--for that handle is the one by which it cannot be taken up; but rather by the handle that he is your brother and brought up with you; and then you will be taking it up as it can be borne."
All these precepts have a general application, but Epictetus adds others on the right bearing of a philosopher; that is, of one whose professed ideal is higher than the mult.i.tude. He bids him above all things not to be censorious, and not to be ostentatious. "Feed on your own principles; do not throw them up to show how much you have eaten. Be self-denying, but do not boast of it. Be independent and moderate, and regard not the opinion or censure of others, but keep a watch upon yourself as your own most dangerous enemy. Do not plume yourself on an _intellectual_ knowledge of philosophy, which is in itself quite valueless, but on a consistent n.o.bleness of action. Never relax your efforts, but aim at perfection. Let everything which seems best be to you a law not to be transgressed; and whenever anything painful, or pleasurable, or glorious, or inglorious, is set before you, remember that now is the struggle, now is the hour of the Olympian contest, and it may not be put off, and that by a single defeat or yielding your advance in virtue may be either secured or lost. It was thus that Socrates attained perfection, by giving his heart to reason, and to reason only. And thou, even if as yet thou art not a Socrates, yet shouldst live as though it were thy wish to be one." These are n.o.ble words, but who that reads them will not be reminded of those sacred and far more deeply-reaching words, "_Be ye perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect" Behold, now is the accepted time; behold, now is the day of salvation_.
In this brief sketch we have included all the most important thoughts in the _Manual_. It ends in these words. "On all occasions we may keep in mind these three sentiments:--"
"Lead me, O Zeus, and thou, Destiny, whithersoever ye have appointed me to go, for I will follow, and that without delay. Should I be unwilling, I shall follow as a coward, but I must follow all the same."
(Cleanthes.)
"Whosoever hath n.o.bly yielded to necessity, I hold him wise, and he knoweth the things of G.o.d." (Euripides.)
And this third one also, "O Crito, be it so, if so be the will of heaven. Anytus and Melitus can indeed slay me, but harm me they cannot."
(Socrates.)
To this last conception of life; quoted from the end of Plato"s _Apology_, Epictetus recurs elsewhere: "What resources have we," he asks, "in circ.u.mstances of great peril? What other than the remembrance of what is or what is not in our own power; what is possible to us and what is not? I must die. Be it so; but need I die groaning? I must be bound; but must I be bound bewailing? I must be driven into exile, well, who prevent me then from going with laughter, and cheerfulness, and calm of mind?
""Betray secrets."
""Indeed I will not, for _that_ rests in my own hands."
""Then I will put you in chains."
""My good sir, what are you talking about? Put _me_ in chains? No, no!
you may put my leg in chains, but not even Zeus himself can master my will."
""I will throw you into prison."
""My poor little body; yes, no doubt."
""I will cut off your head."
""Well did I ever tell you that my head was the only one which could not be cut off?"
"Such are the things of which philosophers should think, and write them daily, and exercise themselves therein."
There are many other pa.s.sages in which Epictetus shows that the free-will of man is his n.o.blest privilege, and that we should not "sell it for a trifle;" or, as Scripture still more sternly expresses it, should not "sell ourselves for nought." He relates, for instance, the complete failure of the Emperor Vespasian to induce Helvidius Priscus not to go to the Senate. "While I am a Senator," said Helvidius, "I _must_ go." "Well, then, at least be silent there." "Ask me no questions, and I will be silent." "But I _must_ ask your opinion." "And _I_ must say what is right." "But I will put you to death." "Did I ever tell you I was immortal? Do _your_ part, and _I_ will do _mine_. It is yours to kill me, mine to die untrembling; yours to banish me, mine to go into banishment without grief."
We see from these remarkable extracts that the wisest of the heathen had, by G.o.d"s grace, attained to the sense that life was subject to a divine guidance. Yet how dim was their vision of this truth, how insecure their hold upon it, in comparison with that which the meanest Christian may attain! They never definitely grasped the doctrine of immortality. They never quite got rid of a haunting dread that perhaps, after all, they might be nothing better than insignificant and unheeded atoms, swept hither and thither in the mighty eddies of an unseen, impersonal, mysterious agency, and destined hereafter "to be sealed amid the iron hills," or
"To be imprisoned in the viewless winds.
And blown with reckless violence about The pendent world."
Their belief in a personal deity was confused with their belief in nature, which, in the language of a modern sceptic, "acts with fearful uniformity: stern as fate, absolute as tyranny, merciless as death; too vast to praise, too inexorable to propitiate, it has no ear for prayer, no heart for sympathy, no arm to save." How different the soothing and tender certainty of the Christian"s hope, for whom Christ has brought life and immortality to light! For "chance" is not only "the daughter of forethought," as the old Greek lyric poet calls her, but the daughter also of love. How different the prayer of David, even in the hours of his worst agony and shame, "_Let Thy loving Spirit lead me forth into the land of righteousness_." Guidance, and guidance by the hand of love, was--as even in that dark season he recognised--the very law of his life; and his soul, purged by affliction, had but a single wish--the wish to be led, not into prosperity, not into a recovery of his lost glory, not even into the restoration of his lost innocence; but only,--through paths however hard--only into the land of righteousness.
And because he knew that G.o.d would lead him thitherward, he had no wish, no care for anything beyond. We will end this chapter by translating a few of the isolated fragments of Epictetus which have been preserved for us by other writers. The wisdom and beauty of these fragments will interest the reader, for Epictetus was one of the few "in the very dust of whose thoughts was gold."
"A life entangled with accident is like a wintry torrent, for it is turbulent, and foul with mud, and impa.s.sable, and tyrannous, and loud, and brief."
"A soul that dwells with virtue is like a perennial spring; for it is pure, and limpid, and refreshful, and inviting, and serviceable, and rich, and innocent, and uninjurious."
"If you wish to be good? first believe that you are bad."
Compare Matt. ix. 12, "They that be whole need not a physician, but they that are sick;" John ix. 41, "Now ye say, We see, therefore your sin remaineth;" and 1 John i. 8, "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us."
"It is base for one who sweetens that which he drinks with the gifts of bees, to embitter by vice his reason, which is the gift of G.o.d."
"Nothing is meaner than the love of pleasure, the love of gain, and insolence: nothing n.o.bler than high-mindedness, and gentleness, and philanthropy, and doing good."