WISDOM
"Wisdom" is the name given to the department of Biblical literature which corresponds to Philosophy in modern literature. It is however always philosophy in application to human life and conduct.
The starting-point of Wisdom literature is the /Unit Proverb/, which is a unit of thought in a unit of form. The unit of form is the couplet or triplet of verse: see above, page 242. Examples are given on pages 107-9. It will be seen that this Unit Proverb is a meeting-point of prose and verse literature: its form is verse, its matter (philosophy) belongs to the literature of prose. Accordingly it is natural that the more extended forms of Wisdom literature should take two directions: one on the side of verse, the other on the side of prose.
/Epigrams/ and /Maxims/: examples of these are found on pages 109-11.
The Epigram is a verse saying, of a few lines in length, in which two lines (not necessarily consecutive) are capable of standing by themselves as a unit proverb. In the examples given the two lines in each epigram that stand out on the left may be read as a proverb complete in itself. Such a germ proverb is the text of the epigram, the remaining lines serve to expand this text. The corresponding prose form is the Maxim, a unit proverb text with a brief prose comment.
/Essays./ A more extended form of Wisdom literature, on the side of prose, is the Essay. The word has various uses: the Scriptural essays are not of the modern type (like those of Macaulay or Emerson), but of the antique type like the essays of Bacon. The t.i.tle of an essay suggests a theme, on which the rest is a prose comment. (Pages 112-24.)
Verse compositions consisting of comments upon themes are in this series called /Sonnets/. In general literature the idea underlying the Sonnet is the adaptation of the matter to the outer form, as if a poet"s thought were poured into special moulds. In English and Italian sonnets there is only one such form or mould--a sequence of 14 lines divided according to a particular plan; the matter of these sonnets must be condensed or expanded to suit this plan. The nearest approach to this in Scriptural literature is the Fixed or Number Sonnet: the opening of this suggests a number scheme, to which the rest conforms.
There be three things which are too wonderful for me, Yea, four which I know not: The way of an Eagle in the air; The way of a Serpent upon a rock; The way of a Ship in the midst of the sea; And the way of a Man with a Maid.
The examples quoted in the present volume are different. They may be called "Free Sonnets": the moulding in these is to nothing more restricted than "high parallelism," that is, not the parallelism binding successive lines into a stanza, but the bond which may correlate the most distant parts of a poem into a single scheme. The scheme of parallelism for each sonnet will be given in a separate note.
Essays
/ii./ This essay touches upon what was the great difficulty to early Hebrew thinkers: the visible prosperity of the wicked, which seemed to them contrary to their conception of "judgment" or righteous providence.
The author in this essay endeavours to meet the difficulty by two thoughts: (1) how a change of fate at the very end of life may make all the difference; (2) how the punishment may come in the next generation.--A resemblance will be noted at one point to a parable of the New Testament.
/v./ An essay on the Choice of Company, in five paragraphs: The danger of unknown company in a house--the good only are proper objects of charity--friendship not trustworthy until tested by adversity--the humble can only be defiled by contact with the proud--like will to like, and riches cannot consort with poverty.
/vi./ This essay is founded upon the old conception of society by which the educated formed a separate cla.s.s--here called "the scribes."
Translated into modern ideas of life the argument would be that no life in any social station must be without leisure, and on such leisure self-culture depends.
/vii./ This section makes a transitional stage to the next division of our selections, as it consists of an Essay containing a Sonnet.
The argument of the whole is that Life is a thing of joy, tempered by the sense of responsibility. The latter idea is conveyed by the word "judgment," which throughout the Old Testament stands for the irreconcilable antagonism between good and evil, and the certain overthrow of evil: the recognition of this makes action responsible.
With this limitation, the author urges that the very shortness of life and youth is so much incentive to make joyful what days are allowed.
The scheme of high parallelism [see above, page 256] in this sonnet is the "pendulum structure": the alternation of successive lines between two thoughts is conveyed to the eye by the indenting of the lines. The middle lines put symbolic descriptions of old age; the lines indented on the left drop the symbolism and speak in plain terms. [The lines indented on the right are subordinate clauses.]
The matter of the sonnet is a tour-de-force of symbolism, under which are veiled the symptoms of senile decay followed by death. It is very likely that some of the symbols may be lost; but it is not difficult to see, without straining, a possible interpretation for each; and some of them have pa.s.sed into traditional use. The poetic beauty of the pa.s.sage is marvellous.
_Or ever the sun, and the light ... be darkened_: in view of the opening words of the preceding essay, which take the "light" and "sun" as symbols of the whole happiness of conscious existence, it is clear that the darkening of this light is the gradual failing of the joy of living.--_And the clouds return after the rain_: an exquisite symbol, closely akin to the last. In youth we may overstrain and disturb our health, but we soon rally; these are storms that quickly clear up. In age the rallying power is gone: "the clouds return after the rain."--_The keepers of the house shall tremble_: Cheyne understands of the hands and arms, the trembling of which is a natural accompaniment of old age.--_The strong men shall bow themselves_: the stooping frame; the plural is merely by attraction to "keepers."--_The grinders cease because they are few_: obviously of the teeth.--_Those that look out of the windows be darkened_: the eyes becoming dim.--_The doors shall be shut in the street_: the general connection of ideas makes it inevitable that the "folding-doors" should be the jaws; clenched jaws are so marked a feature in the skull that it is not difficult to a.s.sociate them with the picture of old age.--_When the sound of the grinding is low, and one shall rise up at the voice of a bird, and all the daughters of music shall be brought low_: these must be taken together: appet.i.te, speech, and sleep are all feeble. Grinding must be interpreted as grinders in the previous part of the sonnet: the loud or low sound of such grinding may fitly typify the eagerness of appet.i.te or the reverse. The early waking or short sleeping of old age is well known. _The daughters of music_ are the tones of the voice.--_They shall be afraid of that which is high, and terrors shall be in the way_: the gait of old age is, through physical feebleness, much what the gait of a person terrified is for other reasons.--_The almond tree shall blossom, and the gra.s.shopper shall be a burden, and the caperberry shall burst_: the three are linked together as being images from natural objects, not because of their symbolising similar things. _The blossoming of the almond tree_ probably refers to the spa.r.s.e white hairs of age. The name of this tree in Hebrew is founded on the fact that it is the first to blossom; though not strictly white, its blossoms may be called whitish: the whitish blossoms, solitary while all is bare around, just yield the image required. The gra.s.shopper is evidently a symbol for a small object, which is nevertheless heavy to feeble age. _The caperberry shall burst_: the last stage of its decay: the failing powers at last give way. And then follows the dropping of the symbolism: "Man goeth to his long home."
So far we have had symbols for failure of powers; now for actual death and dissolution. _Or ever the silver cord be loosed, or the golden bowl be broken_: a symbol from the house-lamp of gold, suspended by a silver cord, suddenly slipping its cord and breaking, its light becoming extinguished. For bowl in this sense compare Zechariah, chapter iv. 2, 3.--_Or the pitcher be broken at the fountain, or the wheel broken at the cistern_: these are exquisite symbols for the sudden and violent cessation of every-day functions. Compare the popular proverb: "The pitcher goes to the well once too often."--_And the spirit return unto G.o.d who gave it_: this by a.n.a.logy with the previous line must be interpreted to mean no more than that the man becomes just what he was before he was born.
Sonnets
/i. The Sluggard./ The metrical scheme of this sonnet is simple: a strophe balanced by an antistrophe. [See above, page 244.]
/ii. The Mourning for the Fool./ Metrical scheme: a brief strophe and antistrophe and conclusion.
/iii. The Two Paths./ Strophe, the way of wisdom; antistrophe, the path of the wicked; conclusion, union of the two in a common image.
/iv. The Creator has made Wisdom the Supreme Prize./ The metrical scheme of this sonnet is an example of "antistrophic inversion": that is, two strophes followed by their antistrophes, but the antistrophe to the second strophe precedes the antistrophe to the first. [This is sometimes expressed by the formula a b b a; or (reckoning the number of lines in each strophe) 4, 6; 6, 4.] The printing makes this clear to the eye.--The unity of thought in the sonnet is the conception of Wisdom as a prize. The middle strophe and antistrophe describe the richness of this prize; the opening strophe makes "chastening" the cost at which it is obtained by the individual from the Lord; and the corresponding antistrophe (at the end) explains the reason for this costliness--wisdom was the instrument by which the whole universe was created.
/v. Watchfulness of Lips and Heart./ A Prayer in sonnet form. The metrical scheme is an ill.u.s.tration of "duplication" applied to antistrophic structure: a quatrain question (strophe 1) has a couplet answer (strophe 2); then the quatrain is duplicated into an octet (antistrophe 1), and the answer is duplicated into a quatrain (antistrophe 2). [The lines of invocation are not counted in strophe and antistrophe 2.]
/vi. Wisdom and the Fear of the Lord./ This is one of the most elaborate sonnets: its metrical scheme combines antistrophic and stanza structure (above, page 243). There is first a strophe with its antistrophe; then a series of stanzas; but these stanzas ill.u.s.trate the metrical device of "augmenting," for they increase, as the thought gathers strength, from 3 lines to 5 lines and 6 lines.
/vii. Wisdom and the Strange Woman./ This is at once the foremost of wisdom poems in its thought, and the most elaborate in sonnet structure: here, as always, the structure is an exact reflection of the thought.
The metrical scheme shows stanza structure throughout. The poem falls into seven sections. In sections 1, 3, 4, 7, which contain the thread of argument, we find octet and ten-line stanzas. Section 2, which breaks off from the argument to give a picture of temptation, changes to s.e.xtet stanzas. Sections 5 and 6, the monologue of Wisdom, are cast in quatrains, but as the monologue crescendoes to its climax the quatrains "augment" to 5, 6, 7 lines. There is further the artistic device of "interruption": the regular flow of stanzas is broken at critical points by single couplets (like musical rhythm interrupted by recitative); again in section 2 the actual speech of the temptress is an irregular ma.s.s of lines outside the stanza structure, and this break in the flow of lines has a fine effect.
The thought of the poem is in the highest degree grand and bold.
Scriptural philosophy loves to celebrate under the name "Wisdom" the union of all things, whether of the external universe or of the spiritual life, in one Divine harmony. In this poem this Wisdom is to be personified, and to proclaim her attractions. But the poet prepares the way by contrast with the spirit of temptation, also personified in female form practising her allurements. This is displayed in a boldly drawn picture; and then the poet, with the words _Doth not Wisdom cry?_ suddenly turns round and presents "Wisdom" as the temptress to good.
LYRICS
/i-ii./ These two selections are from the Book of Job. This consists of matter mainly philosophic worked up into an elaborate poem in which all literary forms--epic, lyric, drama, rhetoric, etc.--are blended in a way unparalleled in modern literature. Hence the form of these two pieces is intermediate between wisdom sonnets and the lyrical poems that follow.
/i. An Elegy of a Broken Heart./ In the Book of Job this intervenes between the Story Prologue, which is prose, and the main body of the poem, which takes a dramatic form. Job breaks the silence to dilate, with lyrical elaboration, upon the situation of utter ruin which is to be the starting-point of the dramatic discussion. Hence the t.i.tle of the section in the whole poem of Job is "Job"s Curse": but it admits of being separated from the action of the drama as an independent poem, with some such t.i.tle as I have given it.--In metrical scheme it falls into two sections. Section 1 is an example of "interruption" (compare note to vii of the sonnets). It will be seen that the last two lines continue the sentence begun by the first two lines, making with them a quatrain: between come ma.s.ses of parallel lines interrupting with a tour-de-force of execration. Section 2 is made up of introductory quatrain, strophe, and antistrophe.
/ii. The Creator"s Joy in his Creation./ This selection from Job is a part of the "Divine Intervention," which may be read as a complete poem.
That drama introduces the Voice of G.o.d out of the whirlwind as taking a part in the dialogue. The link between the Divine Intervention as a whole and the general argument is the impossibility of any mortal grasping the mysteries of the universe, which mysteries enfold the glories of nature as well as the dark ways of providence which Job and his friends have been discussing. As a part of this general thought the portion here cited works out the idea of the Creator"s joy in his creation--a joyous sympathy with the infinities of great and small throughout the universe. It might be an expansion of the words in the story of the creation: "And G.o.d saw everything that he had made, and, behold, it was very good."--The metrical scheme of this poem is a variation of the "pendulum structure." [Page 251.] It may be called a "triple pendulum," or alternation between three notes: one note is made by the startling questions of nature mysteries, another (lines indented to the right) exquisitely pictures the details of these wonders of nature, while for a third (lines still more to the right) there is a word of challenge to Job to answer.
/iii-v./ These three selections are lyrics in the strictest sense.
Originally all poetry is of the form technically called "Ballad-Dance,"
that is, verse combined with musical accompaniment and dancing. When this primitive poetry branches out into other forms, lyric is the form which retains most of the musical element. The poems here cited are lyrics in the strict sense that their structure is determined by the mode of their musical performance. This is seen by the "antiphonal"
distribution of the matter, for example, between choruses of men and women, and by the recurrence of pa.s.sages ("refrains").
/iii. Song of Moses and Miriam./ This is arranged for a Chorus of Men, taking the successive sections of the song, and a Chorus of Women, singing the refrain. The metre is Antique Rhythm (above, page 242): the successive strophes augment with the growing fulness of the theme. The first strophe (after the prelude) simply states the fact of the deliverance; the second pictures it in detail, the third meditates on the consequences to the furthest future.
/iv. Deborah"s Song./ This also is arranged for a Chorus of Men, led by Barak, and a Chorus of Women, led by Deborah. It is in Antique Rhythm (above, page 242). Its structure is antiphonal as between Men, Women, and the two combined. The structure is further elaborated by "interruption" [pa.s.sages printed in italics], where the singers encourage one another.
To appreciate the matter of the song it should be compared with the description of the incident in plain historic prose (Judges, chapter iv). It is not difficult to make out from this narrative (1) that Heber the Kenite, Jael"s husband, was acting as a spy against his allies of Israel, and betraying their movements to the tyrant. Jael"s act was treachery in retaliation for the treachery on the other side by her husband. This explains the exultation over her deed in Deborah"s Song.
(2) This treachery of Heber had upset the plans of Deborah and Barak: helpless against the iron chariots, their only hope had been to a.s.semble secretly on the heights of Kedesh and attempt a surprise. But while the army of Sisera, warned by Heber, were awaiting them on the plains of Esdraelon, a sudden thunder storm with rain (commemorated in the Song) converted the whole plain into a mora.s.s. The army of Barak fell on the foe while their horses were struggling in the mud, and extirpated them at a blow.
/V. David"s Lament./ This simple elegy is cast in quatrain stanzas. Its only elaboration is an augmenting refrain. This beautiful refrain seems to rest for its effect upon the bringing together of two ideas, like a crescendo and decrescendo in music: How are the mighty fallen! This fragmentary refrain as it appears at the beginning is enlarged at the pa.s.sage from the section on Saul to that on Jonathan, and still further enlarged at the close of the whole.
/vi. David"s Song of Victory./ This is in Antique Rhythm: its structure is "strophic" (above, page 243). There is an introduction and conclusion, and three unequal strophes: the first pictures the deliverance, the second meditates on the principle involved (deliverance of the righteous), the third extends the confidence thus produced to the whole past and future. The most notable artistic effect is the sudden change at the prayer of the afflicted one: all nature is convulsed as the Almighty rushes to the rescue.
/vii. The Bride"s Reminiscences./ This is introduced as an example of the Lyric Idyl. The term "idyl" has been explained above (page 248, note to iv): such idyls may be either narrated as stories, or brought out lyrically or dramatically, as in the present case. It is one of a series of lyric idyls making up the poem of Solomon"s Song. The story underlying this poem has been variously interpreted; the interpretation followed in this series (Biblical Idyls volume) is that King Solomon, visiting his vineyards on Mount Lebanon, has come by surprise upon a beautiful Shulammite maiden. As she flies from the royal suite he seeks her in shepherd disguise and wins her love, then he brings her as queen to his palace. The present selection is Idyl II of the series, and contains two of the Bride"s Reminiscences of this courtship. The first is of a visit by the disguised king on a fair spring morning, and how the lovers were interrupted by the harsh voices of the Bride"s Brothers crying out that the foxes were in the vineyards. The second is a dream of losing and finding her lover. [The pa.s.sages in italics are not spoken by the Bride, but are the poet"s interludes, dividing the different sections of the poem.]--Metrical scheme. The idyls are a combination of Antique Rhythm and Antistrophic structure: but the parallelism of strophe and antistrophe must be reckoned in strains, not in lines (see above, page 242): thus we have four strains balanced by four, then two by two; then (in the Dream) three by three. [The refrains are outside the metrical scheme.]
/viii, ix./ These are songs from the books of the prophets.
/viii. The Battle of Carchemish./ This is a War Ballad, in triplet stanzas with "duplication." The battle celebrated was a turning-point in history, settling for ever the supremacy of the Babylonian over the Egyptian empire: these were the two world empires between which parties in the nation of Israel fluctuated, the whole strength of Jeremiah and the prophetic party being thrown against Egypt.
/ix./ This /Song of Zion Redeemed/ forms a section of the Isaiahan "Rhapsody of Zion Redeemed" [chapters xl-lxvi]. It is in stanzas of 4, or occasionally 6 and 8 lines, the flow interrupted by couplets, especially at the beginning of the sections. Compare above, page 262, note to /vii/ (Sonnets).
/x, xi./ These are ill.u.s.trations of a characteristic feature of Biblical poetry--the "Doom form." See above, page 245.
/x. Isaiah"s Doom of Babylon./ The structure is made up of the Divine word of the overthrow of Babylon [prose pa.s.sages] interrupted at intervals by [impersonal] songs, realising or celebrating what the Divine word brings forward. The last of these verse interruptions is a fully developed Ode on Fallen Babylon. The structural form of this ode is antistrophic inversion (7, 6; 6, 7), like that of No. /iv/ of the Sonnets (above, page 260). Another effect in this ode is the Taunt or Dirge Song.--_My consecrated ones ... them that exult in my majesty._ The Divine voice is heard calling to G.o.d"s "hosts," the idea suggested by the t.i.tle "Jehovah Sabaoth." Compare Joel, chapter iii. 11 and 13; Psalm ciii. 20, 21.--_I will sit upon the mount of congregation in the uttermost parts of the north_: the north is regularly in Scripture the quarter from which Divine judgment is looked for (e.g. Ezekiel, chapter i. 4; Jeremiah vi. i; Job x.x.xvii. 22).