28. _With leaden eye_. Evidently suggested by Milton"s description of Melancholy, _Il Pens._ 43:
"Thy rapt soul sitting in thine eyes; There, held in holy pa.s.sion still, Forget thyself to marble, till With a sad leaden downward cast Thou fix them on the earth as fast."
Mitford cites Sidney, _Astrophel and Stella_, song 7: "So leaden eyes;" Dryden, _Cymon and Iphigenia_, 57: "And stupid eyes that ever lov"d the ground;" Shakespeare, _Pericles_, i. 2: "The sad companion, dull-eyed Melancholy;" and _L. L. L._ iv. 3: "In leaden contemplation." Cf. also _The Bard_, 69, 70.
31. _To herself severe_. Cf. Carew:
"To servants kind, to friendship dear, To nothing but herself severe;"
and Dryden: "Forgiving others, to himself severe;" and Waller: "The Muses" friend, unto himself severe." Mitford quotes several other similar pa.s.sages.
32. _The sadly pleasing tear_. Rogers cites Dryden"s "sadly pleasing thought" (Virgil"s _aen._ x.); and Mitford compares Thomson"s "lenient, not unpleasing tear."
35. _Gorgon terrors_. Cf. Milton, _P. L._ ii. 611: "Medusa with Gorgonian terror."
36-40. Cf. _Ode on Eton College_, 55-70 and 81-90.
45-48. Cf. Shakespeare, _As You Like It_, ii. 1:
"these are counsellors That feelingly persuade me what I am.
Sweet are the uses of adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in his head;"
and Mallet:
"Who hath not known ill-fortune, never knew Himself, or his own virtue."
Guizot, in his _Cromwell_, says: "The effect of supreme and irrevocable misfortune is to elevate those souls which it does not deprive of all virtue;" and Sir Philip Sidney remarks: "A n.o.ble heart, like the sun, showeth its greatest countenance in its lowest estate."
[Ill.u.s.tration: "Now rolling down the steep amain, Headlong, impetuous, see it pour; The rocks and nodding groves rebellow to the roar."
_The Progress of Poesy_, 10.]
APPENDIX TO NOTES.
Just as this book is going to press we have received _The Quarterly Review_ (London) for January, 1876, which contains an interesting paper on "Wordsworth and Gray." After quoting Wordsworth"s remark that "Gray was at the head of those poets who, by their reasonings, have attempted to widen the s.p.a.ce of separation between prose and metrical composition, and was, more than any other man, curiously elaborate in the construction of his own poetic diction," the reviewer remarks:
"The indictment, then, brought by Wordsworth against Gray is twofold.
Gray, it seems, had in the first place a false conception of the nature of poetry; and, secondly, a false standard of poetical diction. To begin with the first count, Gray, we are told, sought to widen the s.p.a.ce of separation betwixt prose and metrical composition.
What this charge amounts to we shall see hereafter. Meantime, did Wordsworth think that between prose and poetry there was any line of demarcation at all? In the Preface [to the "Lyrical Ballads"] from which we have quoted we read:
""There neither is nor can be any essential difference between the language of prose and metrical composition. We are fond of tracing the resemblance between Poetry and Painting, and accordingly we call them sisters; but where shall we find bonds of connection sufficiently strong to typify the connection betwixt prose and metrical composition?"
"Now this question admits of a very definite answer. Take the Iliad of Homer and a proposition of Euclid. Is it conceivable that the latter could have been expressed at all in metre, or the former expressed half so well in prose? If not, what is the reason? Is it not plain that the poem contains a predominant element of imagination and feeling which is absolutely excluded from the proposition? And in the same way it may be shown that whenever a man expresses himself properly in metre, the subject-matter of his composition belongs to imagination or feeling; whenever he writes in prose his subject belongs to or (if the prose be fiction) intimately resembles matter of fact. We may decide then with certainty that the sphere of poetry lies in Imagination, and that the larger the amount of _just_ liberty the Imagination enjoys, the better will be the poetry it produces.
But then a further question arises, and this is the key of the whole position, How far does this liberty extend? Is Imagination absolute, supreme, and uncontrolled in its own sphere, or is it under the guidance and government of reason? That its dominion is not universal is obvious, but of its influence we are all conscious, and there is no exaggeration in the eloquent words of Pascal:
""This mighty power, the perpetual antagonist of reason, which delights to show its ascendency by bringing her under its control and dominion, has created a second nature in man. It has its joys and its sorrows; its health, its sickness; its wealth, its poverty; it compels reason, in spite of herself, to believe, to doubt, to deny; it suspends the exercise of the senses, and imparts to them again an artificial acuteness; it has its follies and its wisdom; and the most perverse thing of all is that it fills its votaries with a complacency more full and complete even than that which reason can supply."
"If such be the force of Imagination in active life, how absolute must be its dominion in poetry! And absolute it is, if we are to believe Wordsworth, who defines poetry to be "the spontaneous overflow of powerful emotion." This definition coincides well with modern notions on the nature of the art. But how different is the view if we turn from theory to practice! It would surely be a serious mistake to describe the n.o.blest poems, like the "aeneid" or "Paradise Lost," as the product of mere spontaneous emotion. And even in lyric verse, to which it may be said Wordsworth is specially alluding, we find the greatest poets, like Pindar and Simonides, composing their odes for set occasions like the public games, in honour of persons with whom they were but little acquainted, and (most significant fact of all) in the expectation of receiving liberal rewards. We need not say that such considerations detract nothing from the genius of these great poets; but they prove very conclusively that poetry is not what Wordsworth"s definition a.s.serts, and what in these days it is too often a.s.sumed to be, the mere gush of unconscious inspiration. The definition of Wordsworth may perhaps suit short lyrics, such as he was himself in the habit of composing, but it would be fatal to the claims of poetry to rank among the higher arts, for it would exclude that quality which, in poetry as in all art, is truly sovereign, Invention. The poet, no less than the mechanical inventor, excels by the exercise of reason, by his knowledge of the required effect, his power of adapting means to ends, and his skill in availing himself of circ.u.mstances. Consider for a moment the external difficulties which restrict the poet"s liberty, and require the most vigorous efforts of reason to subdue them. To begin with, in order to secure the happy result promised by Horace,
"Cui lecta potenter erit res Nec facundia deseret hunc nec lucidus ordo,"
he has to take the exact measure of his own powers. How many a poet has failed for want of judgment by trespa.s.sing on a subject and style for which his genius is unfitted! Again, he is confronted by the most obvious difficulties of language and metre, which limit his freedom to a degree unknown to the prose-writer. And beyond this, if he wishes to be read--and a poem without readers is no more than a musical instrument without a musician--he has to consider the character of his audience. He must have all the instinct of an orator, all the intuitive knowledge of the world, as well as all the practical resource, which are required to gain command over the hearts of men, and to subdue, by the charms of eloquence, their pa.s.sions, their prejudices, and their judgment. To achieve such results something more is required than "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling."
"How far Wordsworth"s own poetry ill.u.s.trates his principles we shall consider presently; meantime his definition helps us to understand what he meant by Gray"s fault of widening the s.p.a.ce of separation betwixt prose and metrical composition. Neither in respect of the quant.i.ty nor the quality of his verse could Gray"s manner of composition be described as spontaneous. Compared with Wordsworth"s numerous volumes of poetry, the slender volume that contains the poetry of Gray looks meagre indeed; yet almost every poem in this small collection is a considered work of art. To begin with "The Bard." Few readers, we suppose, would rise from this ode without a sense of its poetical "effect." The details may be thought to require too much attention; the allusions, from the nature of the subject, are, no doubt, difficult; but a feeling of loftiness, of harmony, of proportion, remains in the mind at the close of the poem, which is not likely to pa.s.s away. How, then, was this effect produced? First of all we see that Gray had selected a good subject; his raw materials, so to speak, were poetical. The imagination, unembarra.s.sed by common a.s.sociations, breathes freely in its own region, and is instinctively elevated as it moves among the great events of the past, dwelling on the misfortunes of monarchs, the rise of dynasties, and the splendours of literature. But, in the second place, when he has chosen his subject, it is the part of the poet to impress the great ideas derived from it on the feelings and the memory by the distinctness of the form under which he presents it; and here poetical invention first begins to work. By the imaginative fiction of "The Bard," Gray is enabled to cast the whole course of English history into the form of a prophecy, and to excite the patriotic feelings of the reader, as Virgil roused the pride of his own countrymen by Anchises" forecast of the grandeur of Rome. Finally, when the main design of the poem is thus conceived, observe with what art all the different parts are made to emphasize the beauty of the general conception; with what dramatic propriety the calamities of the conquering Plantagenet are prophesied by his vanquished foe; while on the other hand, the literary glories of the Tudor Elizabeth awaken the triumph of the patriot and the poet; how martial and spirited is the opening of the poem! how lofty and enthusiastic its close! Perhaps there is no English lyric which, animated by equal fervour, displays so much architectural genius as "The Bard."
"Take, again, the "Ode on the Prospect of Eton College." A subject better adapted far the indulgence of personal feeling, or for those sentimental confidences between the reader and the poet, in which the modern muse so much delights, could not be imagined. But what do we find? The theme is treated in the most general manner. Though emphasizing the irony of his reflection by the beautiful touch of memory in the second stanza, the poet speaks throughout as a moralist or spectator; from first to last he seems to lose all thought of himself in contemplating the tragedies he foresees for others; the subject is in fact handled with the most skilful rhetoric, and every stanza is made to strengthen and elaborate the leading thought. In the "Progress of Poesy," though the general constructive effect is perhaps inferior to "The Bard," we see the same evidence of careful preconsideration, while the course of the poem is particularly distinguished by the beauty of the transitions. Of the form of the "Elegy" it is superfluous to speak; a poem so dignified and yet so tender, appeals immediately, and will continue to appeal, to the heart of every Englishman, so long as the care of public liberty and love of the soil maintain their hold in this country. In this poem, as indeed in all that Gray ever wrote, we find it his first principle _to prefer his subject to himself_; he never forgot that while he was a man he was also an artist, and he knew that the function of art was not merely to indulge nature, but to dignify and refine it.
"Yet, in spite of his love of form, there is nothing frigid or statuesque in the genius of Gray. A vein of deep melancholy, evidently const.i.tutional, runs through his poetry, and, considering how little he produced, the number of personal allusions in his verses is undoubtedly large. But he is entirely free from that egotism which we have had frequent occasion to blame as the prevailing vice of modern poetry. For whereas the modern poet thrusts his private feelings into prominence, and finds a luxury in the confession of his sorrows, Gray"s references to himself are introduced on public grounds, or, in other words, with a view to poetical effect. He, like our own bards, is "condemned to groan," but for different reasons--
"The tender for _another"s_ pain, The unfeeling for his own."
"We have already remarked on the public character of the "Ode on Eton College;" but the second stanza of this poem is a pure expression of individual feeling:
"Ah, happy hills! ah, pleasing shade!
Ah, fields belov"d in vain!
Where once my careless childhood play"d, A stranger yet to pain!
I feel the gales that from ye blow A momentary bliss bestow, As waving fresh their gladsome wing, My weary soul they seem to soothe, And, redolent of joy and youth, To breathe a second spring."
Every one will perceive the art which enforces the truth of the general reflections that follow by the personal experience of the speaker. Again, the "Progress of Poesy" closes with a personal allusion which, as it is a climax, might, if ill-managed, have appeared arrogant, but which is, in fact, a masterpiece of oratory.
After confessing his own inferiority to Pindar, the poet proceeds:
"Yet oft before his infant eyes would run Such forms as glitter in the Muse"s ray, With orient hues, unborrow"d of the sun; Yet shall he mount, and keep his distant way, Beyond the limits of a vulgar fate, Beneath the Good how far--but far above the Great!"
There is something very n.o.ble in the elevated manner in which the self-complacent triumph of genius, expressed by so many poets from Ennius downwards, is at once justified and chastened by the reflection in these lines. We see in them that the poet alludes to himself in the third person, and he repeats this style in the "Elegy," where, after the fourth line, the first personal p.r.o.noun is never again used. How just and beautiful is the turn where, after contemplating the general lot of the lowly society he is celebrating, he proceeds to identify his own fate with theirs:
"For _thee_, who, mindful of th" unhonour"d dead, Dost in these lines their artless tale relate, If, chance, by lonely contemplation led, Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate,
"Haply some h.o.a.ry-headed swain may say," etc.
"The two great characteristics of Gray"s poetry that we have noticed--his self-suppression and his sense of form and dignity--are best described by the word "cla.s.sical." What we particularly admire in the great authors of Greece and Rome is their public spirit. Their writings are full of patriotism, good-breeding, and common-sense, and have that happy mixture of art and nature which is only acquired by men who have learned from liberty how to discipline individual instincts by social refinement. Their style is masculine, clear, and moderate; they seem, as it were, never to lose the sense of being before an audience, and, like orators who know that they are always exposed to the judgment of their intellectual equals, they aim at putting intelligible thoughts into the most natural and forcible words. Precisely the same qualities are observable in all the best English writers of the eighteenth century. Addison, Pope, and Goldsmith are perhaps the most shining examples, but the rest are "cla.s.sical" in the sense which we have just indicated; and we can hardly be wrong in ascribing this common rhetorical instinct to the intimate connection between the men of thought and the men of action, which existed both in the free states of antiquity, and in England under the rule of the aristocracy. With the advance of the eighteenth century the instinct in English literature seems to grow weaker; the style of our authors becomes more formal and constrained, and symptoms of that dislike of society encouraged by the philosophy of Rousseau more frequently betray themselves. As the poetry of Cowper shows less social instinct than that of Gray, so Gray himself is inferior in this respect to Pope and Goldsmith. But his style has the same lofty public spirit that distinguishes his favourite models, and no worthier form could be imagined to express the ardour excited in the heart of a patriotic poet by the rising fortunes of his native country. We feel that it is in every way fitting that the author of the "Elegy" should have been the favourite of Wolfe and the countryman of Chatham."
[Ill.u.s.tration: CLIO, THE MUSE OF HISTORY.]