"Throughout the entire history of philosophy, philosophers have sought to discover what man is-or what human nature is. But Sartre believed that man has no such eternal "nature" to fall back on. It is therefore useless to search for the meaning of life in general. We are condemned to improvise. We are like actors dragged onto the stage without having learned our lines, with no script and no prompter to whisper stage directions to us. We must decide for ourselves how to live."
"That"s true, actually. If one could just look in the Bible-or in a philosophy book-to find out how to live, it would be very practical."
"You"ve got the point. When people realize they are alive and will one day die-and there is no meaning to cling to-they experience angst, said Sartre. You may recall that angst, a sense of dread, was also characteristic of Kierkegaard"s description of a person in an existential situation."
"Yes."
"Sartre says that man feels a//en in a world without meaning. When he describes man"s "alienation," he is echoing the central ideas of Hegel and Marx. Man"s feeling of alienation in the world creates a sense of despair, boredom, nausea, and absurdity."
"It is quite normal to feel depressed, or to feel that everything is just too boring."
"Yes, indeed. Sartre was describing the twentieth-century city dweller. You remember that the Renaissance humanists had drawn attention, almost triumphantly, to man"s freedom and independence? Sartre experienced man"s freedom as a curse. "Man is condemned to be free," he said. "Condemned because he has not created himself-and is nevertheless free. Because having once been hurled into the world, he is responsible for everything he does." "
"But we haven"t asked to be created as free individuals."
"That was precisely Sartre"s point. Nevertheless we are free individuals, and this freedom condemns us to make choices throughout our lives. There are no eternal values or norms we can adhere to, which makes our choices even more significant. Because we are totally responsible for everything we do. Sartre emphasized that man must never disclaim the responsibility for his actions. Nor can we avoid the responsibility of making our own choices on the grounds that we "must" go to work, or we "must" live up to certain middle-cla.s.s expectations regarding how we should live. Those who thus slip into the anonymous ma.s.ses will never be other than members of the impersonal flock, having fled from themselves into self-deception. On the other hand our freedom obliges us to make something of ourselves, to live "authentically" or "truly." "
"Yes, I see."
"This is not least the case as regards our ethical choices. We can never lay the blame on "human nature," or "human frailty" or anything like that. Now and then it happens that grown men behave like pigs and then blame it on "the old Adam." But there is no "old Adam." He is merely a figure we clutch at to avoid taking responsibility for our own actions."
"There ought to be a limit to what man can be blamed for."
"Although Sartre claimed there was no innate meaning to life, he did not mean that nothing mattered. He was not what we call a nihilist."
"What is that?"
"That is a person who thinks nothing means anything and everything is permissible. Sartre believed that life must have meaning. It is an imperative. But it is we ourselves who must create this meaning in our own lives. To exist is to create your own life."
"Could you elaborate on that?" / "Sartre tried to prove that consciousness in itself is nothing until it has perceived something. Because consciousness is always conscious of something. And this "something" is provided just as much by ourselves as by our surroundings. We are partly instrumental in deciding what we perceive by selecting what is significant for us."
"Could you give me an example?"
"Two people can be present in the same room and yet experience it quite differently. This is because we contribute our own meaning-or our own interests-when we perceive our surroundings. A woman who is pregnant might think she sees other pregnant women everywhere she looks. That is not because there were no pregnant women before, but because now that she is pregnant she sees the world through different eyes. An escaped convict may see policemen everywhere ..."
"Mm, I see."
"Our own lives influence the way we perceive things in the room. If something is of no interest to me, I don"t see it. So now I can perhaps explain why I was late today."
"It was on purpose, right?"
"Tell me first of all what you saw when you came in here."
"The first thing I saw was that you weren"t here."
"Isn"t it strange that the first thing you noticed was something that was absent?"
"Maybe, but it was you I was supposed to meet."
"Sartre uses just such a cafe visit to demonstrate the way we "annihilate" whatever is irrelevant for us."
"You got here late just to demonstrate that?"
"To enable you to understand this central point in Sartre"s philosophy, yes. Call it an exercise."
"Get out of here!"
"If you were in love, and were waiting for your loved one to call you, you might "hear" him not calling you all evening. You arrange to meet him at the train; crowds of people are milling about on the platform and you can"t see him anywhere. They are all in the way, they are unimportant to you. You might find them aggravating, unpleasant even. They are taking up far too much room. The only thing you register is that he is not there."
"How sad."
"Simone de Beauvoir attempted to apply existentialism to feminism. Sartre had already said that man has no basic "nature" to fall back on. We create ourselves."
"Really?"
"This is also true of the way we perceive the s.e.xes. Simone de Beauvoir denied the existence of a basic "female nature" or "male nature." For instance, it has been generally claimed that man has a "transcending," or achieving, nature. He will therefore seek meaning and direction outside the home. Woman has been said to have the opposite life philosophy. She is "immanent," which means she wishes to be where she is. She will therefore nurture her family, care for the environment and more homely things. Nowadays we might say that women are more concerned with "feminine values" than men."
"Did she really believe that?"
"You weren"t listening to me. Simone de Beauvoir in fact did not believe in the existence of any such "female nature" or "male nature." On the contrary, she believed that women and men must liberate themselves from such ingrown prejudices or ideals."
"I agree."
"Her main work, published in 1949, was called The Second s.e.x."
"What did she mean by that?"
"She was talking about women. In our culture women are treated as the second s.e.x. Men behave as if they are the subjects, treating women like their objects, thus depriving them of the responsibility for their own life."
"She meant we women are exactly as free and independent as we choose to be?"
"Yes, you could put it like that. Existentialism also had a great influence on literature, from the forties to the present day, especially on drama. Sartre himself wrote plays as well as novels. Other important writers were the Frenchman Albert Camus, the Irishman Samuel Beckett, Eugene lonesco, who was from Romania, and Witold Gombro-wicz from Poland. Their characteristic style, and that of many other modern writers, was what we call absurdism. The term is especially used about the "theater of the absurd." "
"Ah."
"Do you know what we mean by the "absurd"?"
"Isn"t it something that is meaningless or irrational?"
"Precisely. The theater of the absurd represented a contrast to realistic theater. Its aim was to show the lack of meaning in life in order to get the audience to disagree. The idea was not to cultivate the meaningless. On the contrary. But by showing and exposing the absurd in ordinary everyday situations, the onlookers are forced to seek a truer and more essential life for themselves."
"It sounds interesting."
"The theater of the absurd often portrays situations that are absolutely trivial. It can therefore also be called a kind of "hyperrealism." People are portrayed precisely as they are. But if you reproduce on stage exactly what goes on in the bathroom on a perfectly ordinary morning in a perfectly ordinary home, the audience would laugh. Their laughter could be interpreted as a defense mechanism against seeing themselves lampooned on stage."
"Yes, exactly."
"The absurd theater can also have certain surrealistic features. Its characters often find themselves in highly unrealistic and dreamlike situations. When they accept this without surprise, the audience is compelled to react in surprise at the characters" lack of surprise. This was how Charlie Chaplin worked in his silent movies. The comic effect in these silent movies was often Chaplin"s laconic acceptance of all the absurd things that happen to him. That compelled the audience to look into themselves for something more genuine and true."
"It"s certainly surprising to see what people put up with without protesting."
"At times it can be right to feel: This is something I must get away from-even though I don"t have any idea where to go."
"If the house catches fire you just have to get out, even if you don"t have any other place to live."
"That"s true. Would you like another cup of tea? Or a c.o.ke maybe?"
"Okay. But I still think you were silly to be late."
"I can live with that."
Alberto came back with a cup of espresso and a c.o.ke. Meanwhile Sophie had begun to like the cafe ambience. She was also beginning to think that the conversations at the other tables might not be as trivial as she had supposed them to be.
Alberto banged the c.o.ke bottle down on the table with a thud. Several people at the other tables looked up.
"And that brings us to the end of the road," he said.
"You mean the history of philosophy stops with Sartre and existentialism?"
"No, that would be an exaggeration. Existentialist philosophy has had radical significance for many people all over the world. As we saw, its roots reach far back in history through Kierkegaard and way back to Socrates. The twentieth century has also witnessed a blossoming and a renewal of the other philosophical currents we have discussed."
"Like what?"
"Well, one such current is Neo-Thomism, that is to say ideas which belong to the tradition of Thomas Aquinas. Another is the so-called a.n.a.lytical philosophy or logical empiricism, with roots reaching back to Hume and British empiricism, and even to the logic of Aristotle. Apart from these, the twentieth century has naturally also been influenced by what we might call Neo-Marxism in a myriad of various trends. We have already talked about Neo-Darwinism and the significance of psychoa.n.a.lysis."
"Yes."
"We should just mention a final current, materialism, which also has historical roots. A lot of current science can be traced back to the efforts of the pre-Socratics. For example, the search for the indivisible "elemental particle" of which all matter is composed. No one has yet been able to give a satisfactory explanation of what "matter" is. Modern sciences such as nuclear physics and biochemistry are so fascinated by the problem that for many people it const.i.tutes a vital part of their life"s philosophy."
"The new and the old all jumbled together . . ."
"Yes. Because the very questions we started our course with are still unanswered. Sartre made an important observation when he said that existential questions cannot be answered once and for all. A philosophical question is by definition something that each generation, each individual even, must ask over and over again."
"A bleak thought."
"I"m not sure I agree. Surely it is by asking such questions that we know we are alive. And moreover, it has always been the case that while people were seeking answers to the ultimate questions, they have discovered clear and final solutions to many other problems. Science, research, and technology are all by-products of our philosophical reflection. Was it not our wonder about life that finally brought men to the moon?"
"Yes, that"s true."
"When Neil Armstrong set foot on the moon, he said "One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." With these words he summed up how it felt to be the first man to set foot on the moon, drawing with him all the people who had lived before him. It was not his merit alone, obviously.
"In our own time we also have completely new problems to face. The most serious are those of the environment. A central philosophical direction in the twentieth century is therefore ecophilosophy or ecosophy, as one of its founders the Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess has called if. Many ecophilosophers in the western world have warned that western civilization as a whole is on a fundamentally wrong track, racing toward a head-on collision with the limits of what our planet can tolerate. They have tried to take soundings that go deeper than the concrete effects of pollution and environmental destruction. There is something basically wrong with western thought, they claim."
"I think they are right."
"For example, ecophilosophy has questioned the very idea of evolution in its a.s.sumption that man is "at the top"-as if we are masters of nature. This way of thinking could prove to be fatal for the whole living planet."
"It makes me mad when I think about it."
"In criticizing this a.s.sumption, many ecophilosophers have looked to the thinking and ideas in other cultures such as those of India. They have also studied the thoughts and customs of so-called primitive peoples-or "native-peoples" such as the Native Americans-in order to rediscover what we have lost.
"In scientific circles in recent years it has been said that our whole mode of scientific thought is facing a "paradigm shift." That is to say, a fundamental shift in the way scientists think. This has already borne fruit in several fields. We have witnessed numerous examples of so-called "alternative movements" advocating holism and a new lifestyle."
"Great."
"However, when there are many people involved, one must always distinguish between good and bad. Some proclaim that we are entering a new age. But everything new is not necessarily good, and not all the old should be thrown out. That is one of the reasons why I have given you this course in philosophy. Now you have the historical background, you can orient yourself in life."
"Thank you."
"I think you will find that much of what marches under the New Age banner is humbug. Even the so-called New Religion, New Occultism, and modern superst.i.tions of all kinds have influenced the western world in recent decades. It has become an industry. Alternative offers on the philosophical market have mushroomed in the wake of the dwindling support for Christianity."
"What sort of offers?"
"The list is so long I wouldn"t dare to begin. And anyway it"s not easy to describe one"s own age. But why don"t we take a stroll through town? There"s something I"d like you to see."
"I haven"t got much time. I hope you haven"t forgotten the garden party tomorrow?"
"Of course not. That"s when something wonderful is going to happen. We just have to round off Hilde"s philosophy course first. The major hasn"t thought beyond that, you see. So he loses some of his mastery over us."
Once again he lifted the c.o.ke bottle, which was now empty, and banged it down on the table.
They walked out into the street where people were hurrying by like energetic moles in a molehill. Sophie wondered what Alberto wanted to show her.
They walked past a big store that sold everything in communication technology, from televisions, VCRs, and satellite dishes to mobile phones, computers, and fax machines.
Alberto pointed to the window display and said: "There you have the twentieth century, Sophie. In the Renaissance the world began to explode, so to speak. Beginning with the great voyages of discovery, Europeans started to travel all over the world. Today it"s the opposite. We could call it an explosion in reverse."
"In what sense?"
"In the sense that the world is becoming drawn together into one great communications network. Not so long ago philosophers had to travel for days by horse and carriage in order to investigate the world around them and meet other philosophers. Today we can sit anywhere at all on this planet and access the whole of human experience on a computer screen."
"It"s a fantastic thought. And a little scary."
"The question is whether history is coming to an end- or whether on the contrary we are on the threshold of a completely new age. We are no longer simply citizens of a city-or of a particular country. We live in a planetary civilization."
"That"s true."
"Technological developments, especially in the field of communications, have possibly been more dramatic in the last thirty to forty years than in the whole of history put together. And still we have probably only witnessed the beginning . . ."
"Was this what you wanted me to see?"
"No, it"s on the other side of the church over there."
As they were turning to leave, a picture of some UN soldiers flashed onto a TV screen.
"Look!" said Sophie.
The camera zoomed in on one of the UN soldiers. He had a black beard almost identical to Alberto"s. Suddenly he held up a piece of card on which was written: "Back soon, Hilde!" He waved and was gone.