The blast required will increase as the depth of the fuel bed increases, and the slight suction should be maintained in the furnace by damper regulation.
The use of blast with the finer sizes causes rapid fouling of the heating surfaces of the boiler, the dust often amounting to over 10 per cent of the total fuel fired. Economical disposal of dust and ashes is of the utmost importance in burning fuel of this nature. Provision should be made in the baffling of the boiler to accommodate and dispose of this dust. Whenever conditions permit, the ashes can be economically disposed of by flushing them out with water.
Bituminous Coals--There is no cla.s.sification of bituminous coal as to size that holds good in all localities. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers suggests the following grading:
_Eastern Bituminous Coals_--
(A) Run of mine coal; the unscreened coal taken from the mine.
(B) Lump coal; that which pa.s.ses over a bar-screen with openings 1 inches wide.
(C) Nut coal; that which pa.s.ses through a bar-screen with 1-inch openings and over one with -inch openings.
(D) Slack coal; that which pa.s.ses through a bar-screen with -inch openings.
_Western Bituminous Coals_--
(E) Run of mine coal; the unscreened coal taken from the mine.
(F) Lump coal; divided into 6-inch, 3-inch and 1-inch lump, according to the diameter of the circular openings over which the respective grades pa.s.s; also 6 3-inch lump and 3 1-inch lump, according as the coal pa.s.ses through a circular opening having the diameter of the larger figure and over that of the smaller diameter.
(G) Nut coal; divided into 3-inch steam nut, which pa.s.ses through an opening 3 inches diameter and over 1 inches; 1 inch nut, which pa.s.ses through a 1-inch diameter opening and over a -inch diameter opening; -inch nut, which pa.s.ses through a -inch diameter opening and over a 5/8-inch diameter opening.
(H) Screenings; that which pa.s.ses through a 1-inch diameter opening.
As the variation in character of bituminous coals is much greater than in the anthracites, any rules set down for their handling must be the more general. The difficulties in burning bituminous coals with economy and with little or no smoke increases as the content of fixed carbon in the coal decreases. It is their volatile content which causes the difficulties and it is essential that the furnaces be designed to properly handle this portion of the coal. The fixed carbon will take care of itself, provided the volatile matter is properly burned.
Mr. Kent, in his "Steam Boiler Economy", described the action of bituminous coal after it is fired as follows: "The first thing that the fine fresh coal does is to choke the air s.p.a.ces existing through the bed of c.o.ke, thus shutting off the air supply which is needed to burn the gases produced from the fresh coal. The next thing is a very rapid evaporation of moisture from the coal, a chilling process, which robs the furnace of heat. Next is the formation of water-gas by the chemical reaction, C + H_{2}O = CO + 2H, the steam being decomposed, its oxygen burning the carbon of the coal to carbonic oxide, and the hydrogen being liberated. This reaction takes place when steam is brought in contact with highly heated carbon. This also is a chilling process, absorbing heat from the furnaces. The two valuable fuel gases thus generated would give back all the heat absorbed in their formation if they could be burned, but there is not enough air in the furnace to burn them.
Admitting extra air through the fire door at this time will be of no service, for the gases being comparatively cool cannot be burned unless the air is highly heated. After all the moisture has been driven off from the coal, the distillation of hydrocarbons begins, and a considerable portion of them escapes unburned, owing to the deficiency of hot air, and to their being chilled by the relatively cool heating surfaces of the boiler. During all this time great volumes of smoke are escaping from the chimney, together with unburned hydrogen, hydrocarbons, and carbonic oxide, all fuel gases, while at the same time soot is being deposited on the heating surface, diminishing its efficiency in transmitting heat to the water."
To burn these gases distilled from the coal, it is necessary that they be brought into contact with air sufficiently heated to cause them to ignite, that sufficient s.p.a.ce be allowed for their mixture with the air, and that sufficient time be allowed for their complete combustion before they strike the boiler heating surfaces, since these surfaces are comparatively cool and will lower the temperature of the gases below their ignition point. The air drawn through the fire by the draft suction is heated in its pa.s.sage and heat is added by radiation from the hot brick surfaces of the furnace, the air and volatile gases mixing as this increase in temperature is taking place. Thus in most instances is the first requirement fulfilled. The element of s.p.a.ce for the proper mixture of the gases with the air, and of time in which combustion is to take place, should be taken care of by sufficiently large combustion chambers.
Certain bituminous coals, owing to their high volatile content, require that the air be heated to a higher temperature than it is possible for it to attain simply in its pa.s.sage through the fire and by absorption from the side walls of the furnace. Such coals can be burned with the best results under fire brick arches. Such arches increase the temperature of the furnace and in this way maintain the heat that must be present for ignition and complete combustion of the fuels in question. These fuels too, sometimes require additional combustion s.p.a.ce, and an extension furnace will give this in addition to the required arches.
As stated, the difficulty of burning bituminous coals successfully will increase with the increase in volatile matter. This percentage of volatile will affect directly the depth of coal bed to be carried and the intervals of firing for the most satisfactory results. The variation in the fuel over such wide ranges makes it impossible to definitely state the thickness of fires for all cla.s.ses, and experiment with the cla.s.s of fuel in use is the best method of determining how that particular fuel should be handled. The following suggestions, which are not to be considered in any sense hard and fast rules, may be of service for general operating conditions for hand firing:
Semi-bituminous coals, such as Pocahontas, New River, Clearfield, etc., require fires from 10 to 14 inches thick; fresh coal should be fired at intervals of 10 to 20 minutes and sufficient coal charged at each firing to maintain a uniform thickness. Bituminous coals from Pittsburgh Region require fires from 4 to 6 inches thick, and should be fired often in comparatively small charges. Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio and Illinois coals require a thickness from 4 to 6 inches. Free burning coals from Rock Springs, Wyoming, require from 6 to 8 inches, while the poorer grades of Montana, Utah and Washington bituminous coals require a depth of about 4 inches.
In general as thin fires are found necessary, the intervals of firing should be made more frequent and the quant.i.ty of coal fired at each interval smaller. As thin fires become necessary due to the character of the coal, the tendency to clinker will increase if the thickness be increased over that found to give the best results.
There are two general methods of hand firing: 1st, the spreading method; and 2nd, the c.o.king method.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Chain Grate Stoker]
In the spreading method but little fuel is fired at one time, and is spread evenly over the fuel bed from front to rear. Where there is more than one firing door the doors should be fired alternately. The advantage of alternate firing is the whole surface of the fire is not blanketed with green coal, and steam is generated more uniformly than if all doors were fired at one time. Again, a better combustion results due to the burning of more of the volatile matter directly after firing than where all doors are fired at one time.
In the c.o.king method, fresh coal is fired at considerable depth at the front of the grate and after it is partially c.o.ked it is pushed back into the furnace. The object of such a method is the preserving of a bed of carbon at the rear of the grate, in pa.s.sing over which the volatile gases driven off from the green coal will be burned. This method is particularly adaptable to a grate in which the gases are made to pa.s.s horizontally over the fire. Modern practice for hand firing leans more and more toward the spread firing method. Again the tendency is to work bituminous coal fires less than formerly. A certain amount of slicing and raking may be necessary with either method of firing, but in general, the less the fire is worked the better the results.
Lignites--As the content of volatile matter and moisture in lignite is higher than in bituminous coal, the difficulties encountered in burning them are greater. A large combustion s.p.a.ce is required and the best results are obtained where a furnace of the reverberatory type is used, giving the gases a long travel before meeting the tube surfaces. A fuel bed from 4 to 6 inches in depth can be maintained, and the coal should be fired in small quant.i.ties by the alternate method. Above certain rates of combustion clinker forms rapidly, and a steam jet in the ashpit for softening this clinker is often desirable. A considerable draft should be available, but it should be carefully regulated by the boiler damper to suit the condition of the fire. Smokelessness with hand firing with this cla.s.s of fuel is a practical impossibility. It has a strong tendency to foul the heating surfaces rapidly and these surfaces should be cleaned frequently. Shaking grates, intelligently handled, aid in cleaning the fires, but their manipulation must be carefully watched to prevent good coal being lost in the ashpit.
Stokers--The term "automatic stoker" oftentimes conveys the erroneous impression that such an apparatus takes care of itself, and it must be thoroughly understood that any stoker requires expert attention to as high if not higher degree than do hand-fired furnaces.
Stoker-fired furnaces have many advantages over hand firing, but where a stoker installation is contemplated there are many factors to be considered. It is true that stokers feed coal to the fire automatically, but if the coal has first to be fed to the stoker hopper by hand, its automatic advantage is lost. This is as true of the removal of ash from a stoker. In a general way, it may be stated that a stoker installation is not advantageous except possibly for diminishing smoke, unless the automatic feature is carried to the handling of the coal and ash, as where coal and ash handling apparatus is not installed there is no saving in labor. In large plants, however, stokers used in conjunction with the modern methods of coal storage and coal and ash handling, make possible a large labor saving. In small plants the labor saving for stokers over hand-fired furnaces is negligible, and the expense of the installation no less proportionately than in large plants. Stokers are, therefore, advisable in small plants only where the saving in fuel will be large, or where the smoke question is important.
Interest on investment, repairs, depreciation and steam required for blast and stoker drive must all be considered. The upkeep cost will, in general, be higher than for hand-fired furnaces. Stokers, however, make possible the use of cheaper fuels with as high or higher economy than is obtainable under operating conditions in hand-fired furnaces with a better grade of fuel. The better efficiency obtainable with a good stoker is due to more even and continuous firing as against the intermittent firing of hand-fired furnaces; constant air supply as against a variation in this supply to meet varying furnace conditions in hand-fired furnaces; and the doing away to a great extent with the necessity of working the fires.
Stokers under ordinary operating conditions will give more nearly smokeless combustion than will hand-fired furnaces and for this reason must often be installed regardless of other considerations. While a constant air supply for a given power is theoretically secured by the use of a stoker, and in many instances the draft is automatically governed, the air supply should, nevertheless, be as carefully watched and checked by flue gas a.n.a.lyses as in the case of hand-fired furnaces.
There is a tendency in all stokers to cause the loss of some good fuel or siftings in the ashpit, but suitable arrangements may be made to reclaim this.
In respect to efficiency of combustion, other conditions being equal, there will be no appreciable difference with the different types of stokers, provided that the proper type is used for the grade of fuel to be burned and the conditions of operation to be fulfilled. No stoker will satisfactorily handle all cla.s.ses of fuel, and in making a selection, care should be taken that the type is suited to the fuel and the operating conditions. A cheap stoker is a poor investment. Only the best stoker suited to the conditions which are to be met should be adopted, for if there is to be a saving, it will more than cover the cost of the best over the cheaper stoker.
Mechanical Stokers are of three general types: 1st, overfeed; 2nd, underfeed; and 3rd, traveling grate. The traveling grate stokers are sometimes cla.s.sed as overfeed but properly should be cla.s.sed by themselves as under certain conditions they are of the underfeed rather than the overfeed type.
Overfeed Stokers in general may be divided into two cla.s.ses, the distinction being in the direction in which the coal is fed relative to the furnaces. In one cla.s.s the coal is fed into hoppers at the front end of the furnace onto grates with an inclination downward toward the rear of about 45 degrees. These grates are reciprocated, being made to take alternately level and inclined positions and this motion gradually carries the fuel as it is burned toward the rear and bottom of the furnace. At the bottom of the grates flat dumping sections are supplied for completing the combustion and for cleaning. The fuel is partly burned or c.o.ked on the upper portion of the grates, the volatile gases driven off in this process for a perfect action being ignited and burned in their pa.s.sage over the bed of burning carbon lower on the grates, or on becoming mixed with the hot gases in the furnace chamber. In the second cla.s.s the fuel is fed from the sides of the furnace for its full depth from front to rear onto grates inclined toward the center of the furnace. It is moved by rocking bars and is gradually carried to the bottom and center of the furnace as combustion advances. Here some type of a so-called clinker breaker removes the refuse.
Underfeed Stokers are either horizontal or inclined. The fuel is fed from underneath, either continuously by a screw, or intermittently by plungers. The principle upon which these stokers base their claims for efficiency and smokelessness is that the green fuel is fed under the c.o.ked and burning coal, the volatile gases from this fresh fuel being heated and ignited in their pa.s.sage through the hottest portion of the fire on the top. In the horizontal cla.s.ses of underfeed stokers, the action of a screw carries the fuel back through a retort from which it pa.s.ses upward, as the fuel above is consumed, the ash being finally deposited on dead plates on either side of the retort, from which it can be removed. In the inclined cla.s.s, the refuse is carried downward to the rear of the furnace where there are dumping plates, as in some of the overfeed types.
Underfeed stokers are ordinarily operated with a forced blast, this in some cases being operated by the same mechanism as the stoker drive, thus automatically meeting the requirements of various combustion rates.
Traveling Grates are of the cla.s.s best ill.u.s.trated by chain grate stokers. As implied by the name these consist of endless grates composed of short sections of bars, pa.s.sing over sprockets at the front and rear of the furnace. Coal is fed by gravity onto the forward end of the grates through suitable hoppers, is ignited under ignition arches and is carried with the grate toward the rear of the furnace as its combustion progresses. When operated properly, the combustion is completed as the fire reaches the end of the grate and the refuse is carried over this rear end by the grate in making the turn over the rear sprocket. In some cases auxiliary dumping grates at the rear of the chain grates are used with success.
Chain grate stokers in general produce less smoke than either overfeed or underfeed types, due to the fact that there are no cleaning periods necessary. Such periods occur with the latter types of stokers at intervals depending upon the character of the fuel used and the rate of combustion. With chain grate stokers the cleaning is continuous and automatic, and no periods occur when smoke will necessarily be produced.
In the earlier forms, chain grates had an objectionable feature in that the admission of large amounts of excess air at the rear of the furnace through the grates was possible. This objection has been largely overcome in recent models by the use of some such device as the bridge wall water box and suitable dampers. A distinct advantage of chain grates over other types is that they can be withdrawn from the furnace for inspection or repairs without interfering in any way with the boiler setting.
This cla.s.s of stoker is particularly successful in burning low grades of coal running high in ash and volatile matter which can only be burned with difficulty on the other types. The cost of up-keep in a chain grate, properly constructed and operated, is low in comparison with the same cost for other stokers.
The Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x chain grate is representative of this design of stoker.
Smoke--The question of smoke and smokelessness in burning fuels has recently become a very important factor of the problem of combustion.
Cities and communities throughout the country have pa.s.sed ordinances relative to the quant.i.ties of smoke that may be emitted from a stack, and the failure of operators to live up to the requirements of such ordinances, resulting as it does in fines and annoyance, has brought their attention forcibly to the matter.
The whole question of smoke and smokelessness is to a large extent a comparative one. There are any number of plants burning a wide variety of fuels in ordinary hand-fired furnaces, in extension furnaces and on automatic stokers that are operating under service conditions, practically without smoke. It is safe to say, however, that no plant will operate smokelessly under any and all conditions of service, nor is there a plant in which the degree of smokelessness does not depend largely upon the intelligence of the operating force.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 26. Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Boiler and Superheater Equipped with Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Chain Grate Stoker. This Setting has been Particularly Successful in Minimizing Smoke]
When a condition arises in a boiler room requiring the fires to be brought up quickly, the operatives in handling certain types of stokers will use their slice bars freely to break up the green portion of the fire over the bed of partially burned coal. In fact, when a load is suddenly thrown on a station the steam pressure can often be maintained only in this way, and such use of the slice bar will cause smoke with the very best type of stoker. In a certain plant using a highly volatile coal and operating boilers equipped with ordinary hand-fired furnaces, extension hand-fired furnaces and stokers, in which the boilers with the different types of furnaces were on separate stacks, a difference in smoke from the different types of furnaces was apparent at light loads, but when a heavy load was thrown on the plant, all three stacks would smoke to the same extent, and it was impossible to judge which type of furnace was on one or the other of the stacks.
In hand-fired furnaces much can be accomplished by proper firing. A combination of the alternate and spreading methods should be used, the coal being fired evenly, quickly, lightly and often, and the fires worked as little as possible. Smoke can be diminished by giving the gases a long travel under the action of heated brickwork before they strike the boiler heating surfaces. Air introduced over the fires and the use of heated arches, etc., for mingling the air with the gases distilled from the coal will also diminish smoke. Extension furnaces will undoubtedly lessen smoke where hand firing is used, due to the increase in length of gas travel and the fact that this travel is partially under heated brickwork. Where hand-fired grates are immediately under the boiler tubes, and a high volatile coal is used, if sufficient combustion s.p.a.ce is not provided the volatile gases, distilled as soon as the coal is thrown on the fire, strike the tube surfaces and are cooled below the burning point before they are wholly consumed and pa.s.s through as smoke. With an extension furnace, these volatile gases are acted upon by the radiant heat from the extension furnace arch and this heat, together with the added length of travel causes their more complete combustion before striking the heating surfaces than in the former case.
Smoke may be diminished by employing a baffle arrangement which gives the gases a fairly long travel under heated brickwork and by introducing air above the fire. In many cases, however, special furnaces for smoke reduction are installed at the expense of capacity and economy.
From the standpoint of smokelessness, undoubtedly the best results are obtained with a good stoker, properly operated. As stated above, the best stoker will cause smoke under certain conditions. Intelligently handled, however, under ordinary operating conditions, stoker-fired furnaces are much more nearly smokeless than those which are hand fired, and are, to all intents and purposes, smokeless. In practically all stoker installations there enters the element of time for combustion, the volatile gases as they are distilled being acted upon by ignition or other arches before they strike the heating surfaces. In many instances too, stokers are installed with an extension beyond the boiler front, which gives an added length of travel during which, the gases are acted upon by the radiant heat from the ignition or supplementary arches, and here again we see the long travel giving time for the volatile gases to be properly consumed.
To repeat, it must be emphatically borne in mind that the question of smokelessness is largely one of degree, and dependent to an extent much greater than is ordinarily appreciated upon the handling of the fuel and the furnaces by the operators, be these furnaces hand fired or automatically fired.