3rd. For equal heat value, oil occupies very much less s.p.a.ce than coal.
This storage s.p.a.ce may be at a distance from the boiler without detriment.
4th. Higher efficiencies and capacities are obtainable with oil than with coal. The combustion is more perfect as the excess air is reduced to a minimum; the furnace temperature may be kept practically constant as the furnace doors need not be opened for cleaning or working fires; smoke may be eliminated with the consequent increased cleanliness of the heating surfaces.
5th. The intensity of the fire can be almost instantaneously regulated to meet load fluctuations.
6th. Oil when stored does not lose in calorific value as does coal, nor are there any difficulties arising from disintegration, such as may be found when coal is stored.
7th. Cleanliness and freedom from dust and ashes in the boiler room with a consequent saving in wear and tear on machinery; little or no damage to surrounding property due to such dust.
The disadvantages of oil are:
1st. The necessity that the oil have a reasonably high flash point to minimize the danger of explosions.
2nd. City or town ordinances may impose burdensome conditions relative to location and isolation of storage tanks, which in the case of a plant situated in a congested portion of the city, might make use of this fuel prohibitive.
3rd. Unless the boilers and furnaces are especially adapted for the use of this fuel, the boiler upkeep cost will be higher than if coal were used. This objection can be entirely obviated, however, if the installation is entrusted to those who have had experience in the work, and the operation of a properly designed plant is placed in the hands of intelligent labor.
TABLE 47
RELATIVE VALUE OF COAL AND OIL FUEL
+------+--------+-------+-----------------------------------------------+ |Gross | Net | Net | Water Evaporated from and at | |Boiler| Boiler |Evap- | 212 Degrees Fahrenheit per Pound of Coal | |Effic-|Effici- |oration+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | iency|ency[46]| from | | | | | | | | | | with | with |and at | | | | | | | | | | Oil | Oil | 212 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | | Fuel | Fuel |Degrees| | | | | | | | | | | |Fahren-| | | | | | | | | | | | heit +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | per | | | | | Pound | Pounds of Oil Equal to One Pound of Coal | | | |of Oil | | +------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 73 | 71 | 13.54 |.3693|.4431|.5170|.5909|.6647|.7386|.8124|.8863| | 74 | 72 | 13.73 |.3642|.4370|.5099|.5827|.6556|.7283|.8011|.8740| | 75 | 73 | 13.92 |.3592|.4310|.5029|.5747|.6466|.7184|.7903|.8621| | 76 | 74 | 14.11 |.3544|.4253|.4961|.5670|.6378|.7087|.7796|.8505| | 77 | 75 | 14.30 |.3497|.4196|.4895|.5594|.6294|.6993|.7692|.8392| | 78 | 76 | 14.49 |.3451|.4141|.4831|.5521|.6211|.6901|.7591|.8281| | 79 | 77 | 14.68 |.3406|.4087|.4768|.5450|.6131|.6812|.7493|.8174| | 80 | 78 | 14.87 |.3363|.4035|.4708|.5380|.6053|.6725|.7398|.8070| | 81 | 79 | 15.06 |.3320|.3984|.4648|.5312|.5976|.6640|.7304|.7968| | 82 | 80 | 15.25 |.3279|.3934|.4590|.5246|.5902|.6557|.7213|.7869| | 83 | 81 | 15.44 |.3238|.3886|.4534|.5181|.5829|.6447|.7125|.7772| +------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | Net | | | | |Evap- | | | | |oration| | | | | from | | | | |and at | | | | | 212 | Barrels of Oil Equal to One Ton of Coal | | | |Degrees| | | | |Fahren-| | | | | heit | | | | | per | | | | |Barrel | | | | |of Oil | | +------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 73 | 71 | 4549 |2.198|2.638|3.077|3.516|3.955|4.395|4.835|5.275| | 74 | 72 | 4613 |2.168|2.601|3.035|3.468|3.902|4.335|4.769|5.202| | 75 | 73 | 4677 |2.138|2.565|2.993|3.420|3.848|4.275|4.703|5.131| | 76 | 74 | 4741 |2.110|2.532|2.954|3.376|3.798|4.220|4.642|5.063| | 77 | 75 | 4807 |2.082|2.498|2.914|3.330|3.746|4.162|4.578|4.994| | 78 | 76 | 4869 |2.054|2.465|2.876|3.286|3.697|4.108|4.518|4.929| | 79 | 77 | 4932 |2.027|2.433|2.838|3.243|3.649|4.054|4.460|4.865| | 80 | 78 | 4996 |2.002|2.402|2.802|3.202|3.602|4.003|4.403|4.803| | 81 | 79 | 5060 |1.976|2.371|2.767|3.162|3.557|3.952|4.348|4.743| | 82 | 80 | 5124 |1.952|2.342|2.732|3.122|3.513|3.903|4.293|4.683| | 83 | 81 | 5187 |1.927|2.313|2.699|3.085|3.470|3.856|4.241|4.627| +------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
[Ill.u.s.tration: City of San Francisco, Cal., Fire Fighting Station. No.
1. 2800 Horse Power of Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Boilers, Equipped for Burning Oil Fuel]
Many tables have been published with a view to comparing the two fuels.
Such of these as are based solely on the relative calorific values of oil and coal are of limited value, inasmuch as the efficiencies to be obtained with oil are higher than that obtainable with coal. Table 47 takes into consideration the variation in efficiency with the two fuels, but is based on a constant calorific value for oil and coal. This table, like others of a similar nature, while useful as a rough guide, cannot be considered as an accurate basis for comparison. This is due to the fact that there are numerous factors entering into the problem which affect the saving possible to a much greater extent than do the relative calorific values of two fuels. Some of the features to be considered in arriving at the true basis for comparison are the labor saving possible, the s.p.a.ce available for fuel storage, the facilities for conveying the oil by pipe lines, the hours during which a plant is in operation, the load factor, the quant.i.ty of coal required for banking fires, etc., etc.
The only exact method of estimating the relative advantages and costs of the two fuels is by considering the operating expenses of the plant with each in turn, including the costs of every item entering into the problem.
Burning Oil Fuel--The requirements for burning petroleum are as follows:
1st. Its atomization must be thorough.
2nd. When atomized it must be brought into contact with the requisite quant.i.ty of air for its combustion, and this quant.i.ty must be at the same time a minimum to obviate loss in stack gases.
3rd. The mixture must be burned in a furnace where a refractory material radiates heat to a.s.sist in the combustion, and the furnace must stand up under the high temperatures developed.
4th. The combustion must be completed before the gases come into contact with the heating surfaces or otherwise the flame will be extinguished, possibly to ignite later in the flue connection or in the stack.
5th. There must be no localization of the heat on certain portions of the heating surfaces or trouble will result from overheating and blistering.
The first requirement is met by the selection of a proper burner.
The second requirement is fulfilled by properly introducing the air into the furnace, either through checkerwork under the burners or through openings around them, and by controlling the quant.i.ty of air to meet variations in furnace conditions.
The third requirement is provided for by installing a furnace so designed as to give a sufficient area of heated brickwork to radiate the heat required to maintain a proper furnace temperature.
The fourth requirement is provided for by giving ample s.p.a.ce for the combustion of the mixture of atomized oil and air, and a gas travel of sufficient length to insure that this combustion be completed before the gases strike the heating surfaces.
The fifth requirement is fulfilled by the adoption of a suitable burner in connection with the furnace meeting the other requirements. A burner must be used from which the flame will not impinge directly on the heating surface and must be located where such action cannot take place.
If suitable burners properly located are not used, not only is the heat localized with disastrous results, but the efficiency is lowered by the cooling of the gases before combustion is completed.
Oil Burners--The functions of an oil burner is to atomize or vaporize the fuel so that it may be burned like a gas. All burners may be cla.s.sified under three general types: 1st, spray burners, in which the oil is atomized by steam or compressed air; 2nd, vapor burners, in which the oil is converted into vapor and then pa.s.sed into the furnace; 3rd, mechanical burners, in which the oil is atomized by submitting it to a high pressure and pa.s.sing it through a small orifice.
Vapor burners have never been in general use and will not be discussed.
Spray burners are almost universally used for land practice and the simplicity of the steam atomizer and the excellent economy of the better types, together with the low oil pressure and temperature required makes this type a favorite for stationary plants, where the loss of fresh water is not a vital consideration. In marine work, or in any case where it is advisable to save feed water that otherwise would have to be added in the form of "make-up", either compressed air or mechanical means are used for atomization. Spray burners using compressed air as the atomizing agent are in satisfactory operation in some plants, but their use is not general. Where there is no necessity of saving raw feed water, the greater simplicity and economy of the steam spray atomizer is generally the most satisfactory. The air burners require blowers, compressors or other apparatus which occupy s.p.a.ce that might be otherwise utilized and require attention that is not necessary where steam is used.
Steam spray burners of the older types had disadvantages in that they were so designed that there was a tendency for the nozzle to clog with sludge or c.o.ke formed from the oil by the heat, without means of being readily cleaned. This has been overcome in the more modern types.
Steam spray burners, as now used, may be divided into two cla.s.ses: 1st, inside mixers; and 2nd, outside mixers. In the former the steam and oil come into contact within the burner and the mixture is atomized in pa.s.sing through the orifice of the burner nozzle.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 28. Peabody Oil Burner]
In the outside mixing cla.s.s the steam flows through a narrow slot or horizontal row of small holes in the burner nozzle; the oil flows through a similar slot or hole above the steam orifice, and is picked up by the steam outside of the burner and is atomized. Fig. 28 shows a type of the Peabody burner of this cla.s.s, which has given eminent satisfaction. The construction is evident from the cut. It will be noted that the portions of the burner forming the orifice may be readily replaced in case of wear, or if it is desired to alter the form of the flame.
Where burners of the spray type are used, heating the oil is of advantage not only in causing it to be atomized more easily, but in aiding economical combustion. The temperature is, of course, limited by the flash point of the oil used, but within the limit of this temperature there is no danger of decomposition or of carbon deposits on the supply pipes. Such heating should be done close to the boiler to minimize radiation loss. If the temperature is raised to a point where an appreciable vaporization occurs, the oil will flow irregularly from the burner and cause the flame to sputter.
On both steam and air atomizing types, a by-pa.s.s should be installed between the steam or air and the oil pipes to provide for the blowing out of the oil duct. Strainers should be provided for removing sludge from the fuel and should be so located as to allow for rapid removal, cleaning and replacing.
Mechanical burners have been in use for some time in European countries, but their introduction and use has been of only recent occurrence in the United States. Here as already stated, the means for atomization are purely mechanical. The most successful of the mechanical atomizers up to the present have been of the round flame type, and only these will be considered. Experiments have been made with flat flame mechanical burners, but their satisfactory action has been confined to instances where it is only necessary to burn a small quant.i.ty of oil through each individual burner.
This system of oil burning is especially adapted for marine work as the quant.i.ty of steam for putting pressure on the oil is small and the condensed steam may be returned to the system.
The only method by which successful mechanical atomization has been accomplished is one by which the oil is given a whirling motion within the burner tip. This is done either by forcing the oil through a pa.s.sage of helical form or by delivering it tangentially to a circular chamber from which there is a central outlet. The oil is fed to these burners under a pressure which varies with the make of the burner and the rates at which individual burners are using oil. The oil particles fly off from such a burner in straight lines in the form of a cone rather than in the form of a spiral spray, as might be supposed.
With burners of the mechanical atomizing design, the method of introducing air for combustion and the velocity of this air are of the greatest importance in securing good combustion and in the effects on the character and shape of the flame. Such burners are located at the front of the furnace and various methods have been tried for introducing the air for combustion. Where, in the spray burners, air is ordinarily admitted through a checkerwork under the burner proper, with the mechanical burner, it is almost universally admitted around the burner.
Early experiments with these air distributors were confined largely to single or duplicate cones used with the idea of directing the air to the axis of the burner. A highly successful method of such air introduction, developed by Messrs. Peabody and Irish of The Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Co., is by means of what they term an "impeller plate". This consists of a circular metal disk with an opening at the center for the oil burner and with radial metal strips from the center to the periphery turned at an angle which in the later designs may be altered to give the air supply demanded by the rate of combustion.
The air so admitted does not necessarily require a whirling motion, but experiments show that where the air is brought into contact with the oil spray with the right "twist", better combustion is secured and lower air pressures and less refinement of adjustment of individual burners are required.
Mechanical burners have a distinct advantage over those in which steam is used as the atomizing agent in that they lend themselves more readily to adjustment under wider variations of load. For a given horse power there will ordinarily be installed a much greater number of mechanical than steam atomizing burners. This in itself is a means to better regulation, for with the steam atomizing burner, if one of a number is shut off, there is a marked decrease in efficiency. This is due to the fact that with the air admitted under the burner, it is ordinarily pa.s.sing through the checkerwork regardless of whether it is being utilized for combustion or not. With a mechanical burner, on the other hand, where individual burners are shut off, air that would be admitted for such burner, were it in operation, may also be shut off and there will be no undue loss from excess air.
Further adjustment to meet load conditions is possible by a change in the oil pressure acting on all burners at once. A good burner will atomize moderately heavy oil with an oil pressure as low as 30 pounds per square inch and from that point up to 200 pounds or above. The heating of the oil also has an effect on the capacity of individual burners and in this way a third method of adjustment is given. Under working conditions, the oil pressure remaining constant, the capacity of each burner will decrease as the temperature of the oil is increased though at low temperatures the reverse is the case. Some experiments with a Texas crude oil having a flash point of 210 degrees showed that the capacity of a mechanical atomizing burner of the Peabody type increased from 80 degrees Fahrenheit to 110 degrees Fahrenheit, from which point it fell off rapidly to 140 degrees and then more slowly to the flash point.
The above methods, together with the regulation possible through manipulation of the boiler dampers, indicate the wide range of load conditions that may be handled with an installation of this cla.s.s of burners.
As has already been stated, results with mechanical atomizing burners that may be considered very successful have been limited almost entirely to cases where forced blast of some description has been used, the high velocity of the air entering being of material a.s.sistance in securing the proper mixture of air with the oil spray. Much has been done and is being done in the way of experiment with this cla.s.s of apparatus toward developing a successful mechanical atomizing burner for use with natural draft, and there appears to be no reason why such experiments should not eventually produce satisfactory results.
Steam Consumption of Burners--The Bureau of Steam Engineering, U. S.
Navy, made in 1901 an exhaustive series of tests of various oil burners that may be considered as representing, in so far as the performance of the burners themselves is concerned, the practice of that time. These tests showed that a burner utilizing air as an atomizing agent, required for compressing the air from 1.06 to 7.45 per cent of the total steam generated, the average being 3.18 per cent. Four tests of steam atomizing burners showed a consumption of 3.98 to 5.77 per cent of the total steam, the average being 4.8 per cent.
Improvement in burner design has largely reduced the steam consumption, though to a greater degree in steam than in air atomizing burners.
Recent experiments show that a good steam atomizing burner will require approximately 2 per cent of the total steam generated by the boiler operated at or about its rated capacity. This figure will decrease as the capacity is increased and is so low as to be practically negligible, except in cases where the question of loss of feed water is all important. There are no figures available as to the actual steam consumption of mechanical atomizing burners but apparently this is small if the requirement is understood to be entirely apart from the steam consumption of the apparatus producing the forced blast.
Capacity of Burners--A good steam atomizing burner properly located in a well-designed oil furnace has a capacity of somewhat over 400 horse power. This question of capacity of individual burners is largely one of the proper relation between the number of burners used and the furnace volume. In some recent tests with a Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x boiler of 640 rated horse power, equipped with three burners, approximately 1350 horse power was developed with an available draft of .55 inch at the damper or 450 horse power per burner. Four burners were also tried in the same furnace but the total steam generated did not exceed 1350 horse power or in this instance 338 horse power per burner.