In the case of chain grate stokers, the desired operating conditions should be maintained for half an hour before starting a test and for a like period before its close, the height of the throat plate and the speed of the grate being the same during both of these periods.
8. RECORDS
A log of the data should be entered in notebooks or on blank sheets suitably prepared in advance. This should be done in such manner that the test may be divided into hourly periods, or if necessary, periods of less duration, and the leading data obtained for any one or more periods as desired, thereby showing the degree of uniformity obtained.
Half-hourly readings of the instruments are usually sufficient. If there are sudden and wide fluctuations, the readings in such cases should be taken every 15 minutes, and in some instances oftener.
The coal should be weighed and delivered to the firemen in portions sufficient for one hour"s run, thereby ascertaining the degree of uniformity of firing. An ample supply of coal should be maintained at all times, but the quant.i.ty on the floor at the end of each hour should be as small as practicable, so that the same may be readily estimated and deducted from the total weight.
The records should be such as to ascertain also the consumption of feed water each hour and thereby determine the degree of uniformity of evaporation.
9. QUALITY OF STEAM[67]
If the boiler does not produce superheated steam the percentage of moisture in the steam should be determined by the use of a throttling or separating calorimeter. If the boiler has superheating surface, the temperature of the steam should be determined by the use of a thermometer inserted in a thermometer well.
For saturated steam construct a sampling pipe or nozzle made of one-half inch iron pipe and insert it in the steam main at a point where the entrained moisture is likely to be most thoroughly mixed. The inner end of the pipe, which should extend nearly across to the opposite side of the main, should be closed and interior portion perforated with not less than twenty one-eighth inch holes equally distributed from end to end and preferably drilled in irregular or spiral rows, with the first hole not less than half an inch from the wall of the pipe.
The sampling pipe should not be placed near a point where water may pocket or where such water may effect the amount of moisture contained in the sample. Where non-return valves are used, or there are horizontal connections leading from the boiler to a vertical outlet, water may collect at the lower end of the uptake pipe and be blown upward in a spray which will not be carried away by the steam owing to a lack of velocity. A sample taken from the lower part of this pipe will show a greater amount of moisture than a true sample. With goose-neck connections a small amount of water may collect on the bottom of the pipe near the upper end where the inclination is such that the tendency to flow backward is ordinarily counterbalanced by the flow of steam forward over its surface; but when the velocity momentarily decreases the water flows back to the lower end of the goose-neck and increases the moisture at that point, making it an undesirable location for sampling. In any case it must be borne in mind that with low velocities the tendency is for drops of entrained water to settle to the bottom of the pipe, and to be temporarily broken up into spray whenever an abrupt bend or other disturbance is met.
If it is necessary to attach the sampling nozzle at a point near the end of a long horizontal run, a drip pipe should be provided a short distance in front of the nozzle, preferably at a pocket formed by some fitting and the water running along the bottom of the main drawn off, weighed, and added to the moisture shown by the calorimeter; or, better, a steam separator should be installed at the point noted.
In testing a stationary boiler the sampling pipe should be located as near as practicable to the boiler, and the same is true as regards the thermometer well when the steam is superheated. In an engine or turbine test these locations should be as near as practicable to throttle valve.
In the test of a plant where it is desired to get complete information, especially where the steam main is unusually long, sampling nozzles or thermometer wells should be provided at both points, so as to obtain data at either point as may be required.
10. SAMPLING AND DRYING COAL
During the progress of test the coal should be regularly sampled for the purpose of a.n.a.lysis and determination of moisture.
Select a representative shovelful from each barrow-load as it is drawn from the coal pile or other source of supply, and store the samples in a cool place in a covered metal receptacle. When all the coal has thus been sampled, break up the lumps, thoroughly mix the whole quant.i.ty, and finally reduce it by the process of repeated quartering and crushing to a sample weighing about 5 pounds, the largest pieces being about the size of a pea. From this sample two one-quart air-tight gla.s.s fruit jars, or other air-tight vessels, are to be promptly filled and preserved for subsequent determinations of moisture, calorific value, and chemical composition. These operations should be conducted where the air is cool and free from drafts.
[Ill.u.s.tration: 3460 Horse-power Installation of Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Boilers at the Chicago, Ill., Shops of the Chicago and Northwestern Ry. Co.]
When the sample lot of coal has been reduced by quartering to, say, 100 pounds, a portion weighing, say, 15 to 20 pounds should be withdrawn for the purpose of immediate moisture determination. This is placed in a shallow iron pan and dried on the hot iron boiler flue for at least 12 hours, being weighed before and after drying on scales reading to quarter ounces.
The moisture thus determined is approximately reliable for anthracite and semi-bituminous coals, but not for coals containing much inherent moisture. For such coals, and for all absolutely reliable determinations the method to be pursued is as follows:
Take one of the samples contained in the gla.s.s jars, and subject it to a thorough air drying, by spreading it in a thin layer and exposing it for several hours to the atmosphere of a warm room, weighing it before and after, thereby determining the quant.i.ty of surface moisture it contains.[68] Then crush the whole of it by running it through an ordinary coffee mill or other suitable crusher adjusted so as to produce somewhat coa.r.s.e grains (less than 1/16 inch), thoroughly mix the crushed sample, select from it a portion of from 10 to 50 grams,[69] weigh it in a balance which will easily show a variation as small as 1 part in 1000, and dry it for one hour in an air or sand bath at a temperature between 240 and 280 degrees Fahrenheit. Weigh it and record the loss, then heat and weigh again until the minimum weight has been reached. The difference between the original and the minimum weight is the moisture in the air-dried coal. The sum of the moisture thus found and that of the surface moisture is the total moisture.
11. ASHES AND REFUSE
The ashes and refuse withdrawn from the furnace and ashpit during the progress of the test and at its close should be weighed so far as possible in a dry state. If wet the amount of moisture should be ascertained and allowed for, a sample being taken and dried for this purpose. This sample may serve also for a.n.a.lysis and the determination of unburned carbon and fusing temperature.
The method above described for sampling coal may also be followed for obtaining a sample of the ashes and refuse.
12. CALORIFIC TESTS AND a.n.a.lYSES OF COAL
The quality of the fuel should be determined by calorific tests and a.n.a.lysis of the coal sample above referred to.[70]
13. a.n.a.lYSES OF FLUE GASES
For approximate determinations of the composition of the flue gases, the Orsat apparatus, or some modification thereof, should be employed. If momentary samples are obtained the a.n.a.lyses should be made as frequently as possible, say, every 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the skill of the operator, noting at the time the sample is drawn the furnace and firing conditions. If the sample drawn is a continuous one, the intervals may be made longer.
14. SMOKE OBSERVATIONS[71]
In tests of bituminous coals requiring a determination of the amount of smoke produced, observations should be made regularly throughout the trial at intervals of 5 minutes (or if necessary every minute), noting at the same time the furnace and firing conditions.
15. CALCULATION OF RESULTS
The methods to be followed in expressing and calculating those results which are not self-evident are explained as follows:
(A) _Efficiency._ The "efficiency of boiler, furnace and grate" is the relation between the heat absorbed per pound of coal fired, and the calorific value of one pound of coal.
The "efficiency of boiler and furnace" is the relation between the heat absorbed per pound of combustible burned, and the calorific value of one pound of combustible. This expression of efficiency furnishes a means for comparing one boiler and furnace with another, when the losses of unburned coal due to grates, cleanings, etc., are eliminated.
The "combustible burned" is determined by subtracting from the weight of coal supplied to the boiler, the moisture in the coal, the weight of ash and unburned coal withdrawn from the furnace and ashpit, and the weight of dust, soot, and refuse, if any, withdrawn from the tubes, flues, and combustion chambers, including ash carried away in the gases, if any, determined from the a.n.a.lysis of coal and ash. The "combustible" used for determining the calorific value is the weight of coal less the moisture and ash found by a.n.a.lysis.
The "heat absorbed" per pound of coal, or combustible, is calculated by multiplying the equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of coal or combustible by 970.4.
Other items in this section which have been treated elsewhere are:
(B) Corrections for moisture in steam.
(C) Correction for live steam used.