In the thermo-electric pyrometer of Le Chatelier, the wires used are platinum and a 10 per cent alloy of platinum and rhodium, enclosed in porcelain tubes to protect them from the oxidizing influence of the furnace gases. The couple with its protecting tubes is called an "element". The elements are made in different lengths to suit conditions.
It is not necessary for accuracy to expose the whole length of the element to the temperature to be measured, as the electromotive force depends only upon the temperature of the juncture at the closed end of the protecting tube and that of the cold end of the element. The galvanometer can be located at any convenient point, since the length of the wires leading to it simply alter the resistance of the circuit, for which allowance may be made.
The advantages of the thermo-electric pyrometer are accuracy over a wide range of temperatures, continuity of readings, and the ease with which observations can be taken. Its disadvantages are high first cost and, in some cases, extreme delicacy.
Melting Points of Metals--The approximate temperature of a furnace or flue may be determined, if so desired, by introducing certain metals of which the melting points are known. The more common metals form a series in which the respective melting points differ by 100 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, and by using these in order, the temperature can be fixed between the melting points of some two of them. This method lacks accuracy, but it suffices for determinations where approximate readings are satisfactory.
The approximate melting points of certain metals that may be used for determinations of this nature are given in Table 8.
Radiation Pyrometers--These are similar to thermo-electric pyrometers in that a thermo-couple is employed. The heat rays given out by the hot body fall on a concave mirror and are brought to a focus at a point at which is placed the junction of a thermo-couple. The temperature readings are obtained from an indicator similar to that used with thermo-electric pyrometers.
Optical Pyrometers--Of the optical pyrometers the Wanner is perhaps the most reliable. The principle on which this instrument is constructed is that of comparing the quant.i.ty of light emanating from the heated body with a constant source of light, in this case a two-volt osmium lamp.
The lamp is placed at one end of an optical tube, while at the other an eyepiece is provided and a scale. A battery of cells furnishes the current for the lamp. On looking through the pyrometer, a circle of red light appears, divided into distinct halves of different intensities.
Adjustment may be made so that the two halves appear alike and a reading is then taken from the scale. The temperatures are obtained from a table of temperatures corresponding to scale readings. For standardizing the osmium lamp, an amylacetate lamp, is provided with a stand for holding the optical tube.
TABLE 8
APPROXIMATE MELTING POINTS OF METALS[8]
+-----------------+------------------+ | Metal | Temperature | | |Degrees Fahrenheit| +-----------------+------------------+ |Wrought Iron | 2737 | |Pig Iron (gray) | 2190-2327 | |Cast Iron (white)| 2075 | |Steel | 2460-2550 | |Steel (cast) | 2500 | |Copper | 1981 | |Zinc | 786 | |Antimony | 1166 | |Lead | 621 | |Bis.m.u.th | 498 | |Tin | 449 | |Platinum | 3191 | |Gold | 1946 | |Silver | 1762 | |Aluminum | 1216 | +-----------------+------------------+
Determination of Temperature from Character of Emitted Light--As a further means of determining approximately the temperature of a furnace, Table 9, compiled by Messrs. White & Taylor, may be of service. The color at a given temperature is approximately the same for all kinds of combustibles under similar conditions.
TABLE 9
CHARACTER OF EMITTED LIGHT AND CORRESPONDING APPROXIMATE TEMPERATURE[9]
+--------------------------------------+-----------+ | Character of Emitted Light |Temperature| | | Degrees | | | Fahrenheit| +--------------------------------------+-----------+ |Dark red, blood red, low red | 1050 | |Dark cherry red | 1175 | |Cherry, full red | 1375 | |Light cherry, bright cherry, light red| 1550 | |Orange | 1650 | |Light orange | 1725 | |Yellow | 1825 | |Light yellow | 1975 | |White | 2200 | +--------------------------------------+-----------+
THE THEORY OF STEAM MAKING
[Extracts from a Lecture delivered by George H. Babc.o.c.k, at Cornell University, 1887[10]]
The chemical compound known as H_{2}O exists in three states or conditions--ice, water and steam; the only difference between these states or conditions is in the presence or absence of a quant.i.ty of energy exhibited partly in the form of heat and partly in molecular activity, which, for want of a better name, we are accustomed to call "latent heat"; and to transform it from one state to another we have only to supply or extract heat. For instance, if we take a quant.i.ty of ice, say one pound, at absolute zero[11] and supply heat, the first effect is to raise its temperature until it arrives at a point 492 Fahrenheit degrees above the starting point. Here it stops growing warmer, though we keep on adding heat. It, however, changes from ice to water, and when we have added sufficient heat to have made it, had it remained ice, 283 degrees hotter or a temperature of 315 degrees Fahrenheit"s thermometer, it has all become water, at the same temperature at which it commenced to change, namely, 492 degrees above absolute zero, or 32 degrees by Fahrenheit"s scale. Let us still continue to add heat, and it will now grow warmer again, though at a slower rate--that is, it now takes about double the quant.i.ty of heat to raise the pound one degree that it did before--until it reaches a temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or 672 degrees absolute (a.s.suming that we are at the level of the sea). Here we find another critical point. However much more heat we may apply, the water, as water, at that pressure, cannot be heated any hotter, but changes on the addition of heat to steam; and it is not until we have added heat enough to have raised the temperature of the water 966 degrees, or to 1,178 degrees by Fahrenheit"s thermometer (presuming for the moment that its specific heat has not changed since it became water), that it has all become steam, which steam, nevertheless, is at the temperature of 212 degrees, at which the water began to change. Thus over four-fifths of the heat which has been added to the water has disappeared, or become insensible in the steam to any of our instruments.
It follows that if we could reduce steam at atmospheric pressure to water, without loss of heat, the heat stored within it would cause the water to be red hot; and if we could further change it to a solid, like ice, without loss of heat, the solid would be white hot, or hotter than melted steel--it being a.s.sumed, of course, that the specific heat of the water and ice remain normal, or the same as they respectively are at the freezing point.
After steam has been formed, a further addition of heat increases the temperature again at a much faster ratio to the quant.i.ty of heat added, which ratio also varies according as we maintain a constant pressure or a constant volume; and I am not aware that any other critical point exists where this will cease to be the fact until we arrive at that very high temperature, known as the point of dissociation, at which it becomes resolved into its original gases.
The heat which has been absorbed by one pound of water to convert it into a pound of steam at atmospheric pressure is sufficient to have melted 3 pounds of steel or 13 pounds of gold. This has been transformed into something besides heat; stored up to reappear as heat when the process is reversed. That condition is what we are pleased to call latent heat, and in it resides mainly the ability of the steam to do work.
[Graph: Temperature in Fahrenheit Degrees (from Absolute Zero) against Quant.i.ty of Heat in British Thermal Units]
The diagram shows graphically the relation of heat to temperature, the horizontal scale being quant.i.ty of heat in British thermal units, and the vertical temperature in Fahrenheit degrees, both reckoned from absolute zero and by the usual scale. The dotted lines for ice and water show the temperature which would have been obtained if the conditions had not changed. The lines marked "gold" and "steel" show the relation to heat and temperature and the melting points of these metals. All the inclined lines would be slightly curved if attention had been paid to the changing specific heat, but the curvature would be small. It is worth noting that, with one or two exceptions, the curves of all substances lie between the vertical and that for water. That is to say, that water has a greater capacity for heat than all other substances except two, hydrogen and bromine.
In order to generate steam, then, only two steps are required: 1st, procure the heat, and 2nd, transfer it to the water. Now, you have it laid down as an axiom that when a body has been transferred or transformed from one place or state into another, the same work has been done and the same energy expended, whatever may have been the intermediate steps or conditions, or whatever the apparatus. Therefore, when a given quant.i.ty of water at a given temperature has been made into steam at a given temperature, a certain definite work has been done, and a certain amount of energy expended, from whatever the heat may have been obtained, or whatever boiler may have been employed for the purpose.
A pound of coal or any other fuel has a definite heat producing capacity, and is capable of evaporating a definite quant.i.ty of water under given conditions. That is the limit beyond which even perfection cannot go, and yet I have known, and doubtless you have heard of, cases where inventors have claimed, and so-called engineers have certified to, much higher results.
The first step in generating steam is in burning the fuel to the best advantage. A pound of carbon will generate 14,500 British thermal units, during combustion into carbonic dioxide, and this will be the same, whatever the temperature or the rapidity at which the combustion may take place. If possible, we might oxidize it at as slow a rate as that with which iron rusts or wood rots in the open air, or we might burn it with the rapidity of gunpowder, a ton in a second, yet the total heat generated would be precisely the same. Again, we may keep the temperature down to the lowest point at which combustion can take place, by bringing large bodies of air in contact with it, or otherwise, or we may supply it with just the right quant.i.ty of pure oxygen, and burn it at a temperature approaching that of dissociation, and still the heat units given off will be neither more nor less. It follows, therefore, that great lat.i.tude in the manner or rapidity of combustion may be taken without affecting the quant.i.ty of heat generated.
But in practice it is found that other considerations limit this lat.i.tude, and that there are certain conditions necessary in order to get the most available heat from a pound of coal. There are three ways, and only three, in which the heat developed by the combustion of coal in a steam boiler furnace may be expended.
1st, and princ.i.p.ally. It should be conveyed to the water in the boiler, and be utilized in the production of steam. To be perfect, a boiler should so utilize all the heat of combustion, but there are no perfect boilers.
2nd. A portion of the heat of combustion is conveyed up the chimney in the waste gases. This is in proportion to the weight of the gases, and the difference between their temperature and that of the air and coal before they entered the fire.
3rd. Another portion is dissipated by radiation from the sides of the furnace. In a stove the heat is all used in these latter two ways, either it goes off through the chimney or is radiated into the surrounding s.p.a.ce. It is one of the princ.i.p.al problems of boiler engineering to render the amount of heat thus lost as small as possible.
The loss from radiation is in proportion to the amount of surface, its nature, its temperature, and the time it is exposed. This loss can be almost entirely eliminated by thick walls and a smooth white or polished surface, but its amount is ordinarily so small that these extraordinary precautions do not pay in practice.
It is evident that the temperature of the escaping gases cannot be brought below that of the absorbing surfaces, while it may be much greater even to that of the fire. This is supposing that all of the escaping gases have pa.s.sed through the fire. In case air is allowed to leak into the flues, and mingle with the gases after they have left the heating surfaces, the temperature may be brought down to almost any point above that of the atmosphere, but without any reduction in the amount of heat wasted. It is in this way that those low chimney temperatures are sometimes attained which pa.s.s for proof of economy with the un.o.bserving. All surplus air admitted to the fire, or to the gases before they leave the heating surfaces, increases the losses.
We are now prepared to see why and how the temperature and the rapidity of combustion in the boiler furnace affect the economy, and that though the amount of heat developed may be the same, the heat available for the generation of steam may be much less with one rate or temperature of combustion than another.
a.s.suming that there is no air pa.s.sing up the chimney other than that which has pa.s.sed through the fire, the higher the temperature of the fire and the lower that of the escaping gases the better the economy, for the losses by the chimney gases will bear the same proportion to the heat generated by the combustion as the temperature of those gases bears to the temperature of the fire. That is to say, if the temperature of the fire is 2500 degrees and that of the chimney gases 500 degrees above that of the atmosphere, the loss by the chimney will be 500/2500 = 20 per cent. Therefore, as the escaping gases cannot be brought below the temperature of the absorbing surface, which is practically a fixed quant.i.ty, the temperature of the fire must be high in order to secure good economy.
The losses by radiation being practically proportioned to the time occupied, the more coal burned in a given furnace in a given time, the less will be the proportionate loss from that cause.
It therefore follows that we should burn our coal rapidly and at a high temperature to secure the best available economy.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Portion of 9880 Horse-power Installation of Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Boilers and Superheaters, Equipped with Babc.o.c.k & Wilc.o.x Chain Grate Stokers at the South Side Elevated Ry. Co., Chicago, Ill.]
PROPERTIES OF WATER
Pure water is a chemical compound of one volume of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen, its chemical symbol being H_{2}O.
The weight of water depends upon its temperature. Its weight at four temperatures, much used in physical calculations, is given in Table 10.
TABLE 10
WEIGHT OF WATER AT TEMPERATURES USED IN PHYSICAL CALCULATIONS
+---------------------------+----------+----------+ | Temperature Degrees |Weight per|Weight per| | Fahrenheit |Cubic Foot|Cubic Inch| | | Pounds | Pounds | +---------------------------+----------+----------+ |At 32 degrees or freezing | | | | point at sea level | 62.418 | 0.03612 | |At 39.2 degrees or point of| | | | maximum density | 62.427 | 0.03613 | |At 62 degrees or standard | | | | temperature | 62.355 | 0.03608 | |At 212 degrees or boiling | | | | point at sea level | 59.846 | 0.03469 | +---------------------------+----------+----------+
While authorities differ as to the weight of water, the range of values given for 62 degrees Fahrenheit (the standard temperature ordinarily taken) being from 62.291 pounds to 62.360 pounds per cubic foot, the value 62.355 is generally accepted as the most accurate.
A United States standard gallon holds 231 cubic inches and weighs, at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, approximately 8-1/3 pounds.